Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Assessment of bmus awareness on sardine processing and marketing in lake Victoria, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Moshiro, E.
This study was implemented to generate information on assessing BMUs awareness on sardine processing and marketing on Lake Victoria Tanzania. Specifically, the study intended to; identify the roles BMUs are currently performing in line with sardine processing practices with the proposed BMUs guidelines and generating information to carry out the training need assessment for the studied BMUs. The study was conducted in Tanzania part of the lake. A total of 11 BMUs participated, drawn from three districts of Mwanza city. Data was collected using three main methods; A questionnaire-based survey involving a total of 155 respondents, Key informant interviews (n = 3) was done to to cover the information from the Focus Group Discussions, and also FGD (n = 77) with different groups at each site. After fieldwork data was entered in spreadsheets (Excel and SPSS) and analyzed. Multiple response analysis was used to determine the relationship between sardine handling, processing and training need within BMUs. BMUs are aware of various interventions done for sustainable fishery resource utilization. Though efforts to improve the value of sardines have been shown but BMUs were observed with challenges such as, lack of government and financial support, conflict of interest, poor record keeping, lack of regular trainings and proper market. In those circumstances BMUs are not sustainable, although they are feasible institutions. There is a need to build capacity through provision of equipments, access to financial resources, incentives to BMUs leaders, relevant training skills and awareness creation for BMUs to be feasible and sustainable.
Assessment of rodent-borne and zoonotic disease pathogens in humans, gogs and rodents and community awareness in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Issae, Amina Ramadhani
Bacteria and viruses carried by rodents, and domestic dogs can have significant public health implications. Rodents are known reservoirs of several zoonotic diseases, such as Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever, Lassa fever virus, plague, tuberculosis and leptospirosis. Also, domestic dogs carry zoonoses like rabies, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, ehrlichiosis and borreliosis. Zoonotic diseases pose a substantial risk to communities‘ health, mostly in wildlife, domestic animals and human interface areas. Ngorongoro district is the home of various wildlife and domestic animals cohabiting with humans. The district is experiencing the expansion of human activities which brings rodents into close proximity with human settlements. Previous studies conducted in livestock and human patients attending the health facilities have documented the existence of antibodies of zoonoses like Rift Valley fever, Brucellosis, Anthrax, and molecular detection of Bovine tuberculosis. While previous studies have examined the transmission of pathogens in livestock and hospital-based research in humans within the district, the specific role played by rodents and domestic dogs in transmitting pathogens remains largely unknown. This research gap necessitated conducting a comprehensive metagenomics study to assess the diversity and abundance of bacteria and viruses circulating among rodents, domestic dogs and humans as well as the communities understanding of rodent-borne diseases, including RVF, in the Ngorongoro district of Tanzania. The Rift Valley fever was frequently previously reported to occur within livestock and human populations of the Ngorongoro district. The disease caused significant morbidity and mortality in both livestock including humans. To address the objectives, the study used Illumina and Oxford Nanopore technologies to identify bacteria and viruses in 530 blood samples collected from 200 humans, 230 rodents, and 100 domestic dogs. Numerous bacteria and viruses were detected and identified by using MiSeq and MinION sequencers with a Kraken2 data analysis program. Moreover, the study used 3 focus groups, 20 key informant interviews, and the questionnaire (N=352) to collect information on communities‘ awareness on rodent-borne diseases and Rift Valley fever. The logistic regression model was used to examine the relationship between demographic factors and communities‘ knowledge, attitudes and practices toward rodent- borne diseases and RVF occurrences. In all three hosts, various pathogenic and zoonotic bacterial species were detected. Zoonotic airborne and contagious bacteria such as Mycobacterium spp, Mycoplasma spp, Bordetella spp and Legionella spp were spotted in rodents, domestic dogs and humans. Arthropod-borne zoonotic bacteria like Bartonella spp, Borrelia spp, and Rickettsia spp were detected in all three hosts, while Orientia spp were found in rodents and dogs. Yersinia pestis, Streptobacillus spp and Anaplasma spp were identified in rodents only. Waterborne and foodborne zoonotic bacteria were also spotted in all three hosts, including Leptospira spp, Brucella spp, Bacillus spp, and Salmonella. Generally, rodents carried a high proportion of zoonotic bacteria compared to dogs and humans. The detection of zoonotic bacteria in all three hosts showed the possibilities of cross-species transmission of infections between animals and humans sharing the same environment. Several viral families and species were detected and identified in this study. A total of 20 RNA and 20 DNA viral families and unclassified RNA viruses were detected. The majority of viral families were detected in rodents when compared to domestic dogs and humans. Peribunyaviridae, Hantaviridae, Phenuiviridae, Flaviviridae, Coronaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Retroviridae, Picornaviridae, Arenaviridae, Togaviridae, and Tobaniviridae are zoonotic RNA viruses identified in rodents. The zoonotic DNA viruses detected in rodents were Adenoviridae, Poxviridae, Herpesviridae, Anelloviridae, and Circoviridae. Peribunyaviridae and Hantaviridae viruses were identified in both rodents and humans, whereas Retroviridae was detected in rodents and domestic dogs. Unclassified +ssRNA viruses were spotted in domestic dogs and humans. Lastly, Herpesviridae was found in all three hosts. In comparison with domestic dogs and humans, rodents harboured potential zoonotic viruses of public health safety. Result showed that 8.52% of respondents had good knowledge, 35.5% had a positive attitude, and 94.3% had good practices toward rodent-borne diseases. The study revealed that only 28.13% of participants were aware of rodent-borne zoonoses. The majority of them (77.27%) believe that rodents are pests that destroy crops and do not transmit pathogens. Moreover, the findings showed that the majority of respondents (82.9%) live in huts which can provide shelter for rodents. Additionally, except for education, the level of knowledge had no significant relationship with most of the participants‘ demographic variables. Respondents with secondary education (p=0.017) had good knowledge of rodent-borne diseases and management when compared to those without education. Despite showing good practices, the communities still don‘t have enough knowledge of rodent-borne infections. The findings further showed that only 36.1%, 38.64%, and 16.19% of participants had good knowledge, positive attitudes and effective preventive practices about RVF occurrences, respectively. The significant demographic variables related to good knowledge and positive attitudes were gender (P<0.05), occupation (P<0.05) and education (P<0.05). Male respondents had good knowledge of RVF epidemiology. Individuals with formal education had good knowledge and exhibited positive attitudes towards RVF occurrences. Agropastoral members had a significantly negative attitude toward RVF occurrences compared to pastorals (P=0.048). The study revealed that the majority of respondents had poor knowledge, negative attitudes and ineffective preventive practices towards RVF epidemiology. Probably, these results were attributed to the lack of regular education campaigns to increase community awareness of the disease. This study novelty is based on the fact that it is the first to provide the baseline information on the diversity of pathogenic and zoonotic bacteria and viruses in rodents, domestic dogs and humans sharing the same environment. Likewise, it established the levels of the communities‘ knowledge, attitudes and practices toward rodent- borne diseases including Rift Valley fever in Ngorongoro district for the first time. The study population had inadequate knowledge and negative attitudes toward rodent-borne diseases and RVF. Therefore, one health multidisciplinary approach is recommended in order to safeguard public and animal health from acquiring zoonoses. Provision of health education should be a long-term practice to prevent diseases outbreaks in Ngorongoro district and in Tanzania at large.
Attitude and perception of tourists towards wildlife-based tourism in Tanzania: a case study of the northern tourist circuit
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Kahangwa, P. N.
The tourism industry has become a fast growing economic sector in Tanzania with high foreign earnings. This is a result of the vast natural resources that Tanzania is endowed with. The tourists arriving in Tanzania have different attitudes and perceptions of the destination. Understanding these attitudes and perceptions is essential to the development of the tourism industry. This study therefore, research on the attitude and perception of tourists on wildlife tourism as well as their preference on wildlife attractions. Survey questionnaires were used to collect data from 300 tourists visiting Lake Manyara National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Data was analysed using SPSS version 20. Results show that overall; tourists have a positive attitude and perception towards wildlife tourism in Tanzania. However, there are some few factors which the tourists had a negative attitude and perception with, such as overcrowding, littering, feeding of wild animals, going off-road, inadequate tourists’ facilities and infrastructures. These factors must be addressed so as to promote the vast growth of the tourism industry which has a significant contribution to the economic development of the country.
Breeding population status and habitat preferences of white- backed vulture in Ikorongo- Grumeti Game Reserves and Ikona Wildlife Management area in Western Serengeti
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Vainess, Solomon Laizer
White -backed vulture (Gyps africanus) is a critically endangered species since its population has significantly declined across its geographical ranges. Apparently, vultures provide the ecosystem with cleaning service hence reduced risk of disease spread through their feeding behaviour. Studying the breeding population status and habitat of these species is of paramount importance in maintaining a healthy population as well as managing and mitigating threats to the species and their associated habitats. This study aimed at investigating the breeding population status and the nesting preferences of the Gyps africanus population in the Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserves and Ikona wildlife management area (WMA) in the western corridor of the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem along the primary riparian zones (PRZ). The PRZ consisted of the Grumeti, Manchira, Nyabeu, Samisami, Rokare, Romoti, Maruru and Muyambi Rivers and their tributaries. This study used the project historical aerial surveys data gathered from 2013 to 2021 to produce breeding population trend and conducted ground nest surveys in 2021 and 2022 to estimate the breeding success and nesting preferences of the species. Due to the colonial nesting behaviour of the species, cluster analysis was used to group the nesting hotspots as well as remote sensing analysis to assess the tree cover in their breeding habitat. According to results of the aerial survey data, the breeding population in the game reserves and their contiguous WMA has declined by 56%, and based on the active nest survey, breeding success was 29%, that being lower than the previously documented information for the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem which was 90%. Individuals were found nesting along the rivers in the Ficus and Vachellia and Senegalia woodlands. Majority of the nests (57%) were found on Ficus sycomoras whereas the least number (1%) was found on Ficus indica. The tree height was the most significant tree factor for nesting tree as observed from the generelized linear model. Nesting hotspots were classified as former or intermittent hotspots, and none were classified as persistent hotspots. Net tree loss was observed in all hotspot categories, and a 28% reduction in riparian tree cover was detected. The study concludes that the Gyps africanus population in the area is declining, parallel with dropping breeding success and deteriorating breeding habitats. Seemingly, habitat loss/deterioration is a driving factor, which together with other potential threats to the population, need further investigation. Such baseline information is of critical importance to the management and conservation efforts of vultures and their overall breeding habitats in the ecosystem.
Communities and conservation in West Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: participation, costs and benefits Lokalsanilimn og naturvern i Vest-Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: Deltakelse, kostnadcrog nyttc
(Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2015) Mariki Sayuni Bildad
This thesis contributes to the current debate on how to balance conservation and development objectives. The extent of land under protection globally has increased enormously over the last 30 years, and there are still plans to expand the current protected areas (P/Xs) and create new ones. Their establishment is associated with impacts on local communities who live in the proximity of such areas. Different actors have proposed local participation and benefit sharing for people affected by these conservation initiatives. Despite their implementation over three decades, the social, economic, and political impacts of establishing and maintaining PAs remain debatable. It is in this context that this study was conducted in the I'nduimet Wildlife Management Area (WMA). the Kilimanjaro National Park, and the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation in Tanzania. I he specific research questions of the study are: What are the social and economic impacts of the expansion and establishment of conservation areas on local people in West Kilimanjaro; and how are the impacts distributed along gender lines? ii. iii. How are the conservation benefits shared with local communities in West Kilimanjaro? How do the conservation benefits and costs alTect local peoples* attitudes towards and perceptions of conservation? iv. What are the factors that drive human-wildlife conflicts? Data were collected using qualitative methods through the combination of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, informal interviews, and participant observation. Secondary data in the form of written sources on the study area were used in addition to the primary data gathered. The research results are presented in four separate but interrelated papers. Paper I investigates the gendered impacts of the creation of the Enduimet WMA and expansion of the Kilimanjaro National Park during recent years. The results of Paper 1 indicate that the establishment of these PAs has caused local people to lose rights to land and resources, harassment by PA staff, and increased conservation costs. The costs were found to be distributed along gender lines. However, women are affected more than men, due to inequality in the division of labour and resources at household level. Furthermore, relatively wealthy men and women suffer less compared to their poor counterparts because they are capable of buy ing natural resources such as fodder and firewood, an option which is less available to the poor. Furthermore, women in female headed households suffer more, compared to women in male-headed households, because they lack sufficient labour power for collecting natural resources and thus spend more time and energy in doing so. In addition, some are poor hence they lack the money to purchase these resources, while others are of old age and do not have relatives willing to help. Collecting natural resources forces poor women to spend more time and labour, which affects their health and restricts their time for participating in economic activ ities. Paper II explores the local benefits and transparency concerning the collection and distribution of tourism revenues from the Enduimet WMA. The results of Paper II show that the benefits channelled to local people who bear the costs of conservation are modest, and the system lacks transparency. The Enduimet Community-Based Organisation is entitled to receive 65 % of non consumptive tourism revenues accrued from the WMA. In practice, it receives less than 65 % after the revenues collected have passed through the non-transparent central government system. In 2011 each village received about 3.6 % of the tourism fees, and altogether the member villages received 32.5 %. When taking into account the uncompensated costs that some villagers bear in terms of increased crop damage, livestock loss, and loss of human life caused by increasing wildlife populations, the practice docs not match the ‘win-win’ discourse, that the Enduimet WMA will secure a sustainable source of income for local communities. Paper III compares the Kilimanjaro National Park and the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation in terms of local participation and benefit sharing, and how these alTcct relations between local communities and the two areas. The results of Paper III show that the Kilimanjaro National Park cams about 17 million USD per year, but from the inception of the park outreach programme in 1994 to 2011 (17 years), the park has spent only about 1.6 million USD to support 39 out of 90 neighbouring villages. Only one village among the three studied was supported by the park in 2002/03, in the form of the constniction of a water intake and storage tank worth 13,571 USD. The headquarters claim that they offer 7.5 % of the park's operational budget to neighbouring villages, but in practice, it is much less. Revenue sharing in the park is affected by bureaucratic procedures hampering applications for community projects, political influence, lack of transparency, mismanagement, and misuse of funds by national parks headquarters. It was found that some income was used to support parks (hat generate insufficient income. In addition, there is generally a lack of communication between the park and villagers. Villagers feel resentment towards the park that leads them to withdraw park resources illegally. They referred to the park stall'as ‘enemies' who do not care about their livelihoods. On the contrary, the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation has had a positive impact on neighbouring villages. Local communities benefit through the legal collection of forest products, farming opportunities, logging businesses for registered customers, and casual labour opportunities. Income from casual labour and agriculture serves as a source of income for them and their families. Nevertheless, casual labourers are paid too little (2.5 USD/day) and the process of allocating farming plots is affected by favouritism. The differences observed between the two areas are related to sectoral legal reforms in the 1990s to accommodate locally-based and decentralised approaches to natural resources management following the economic crisis of the late 1970s to the early 1980s. and the resulting declining capacity of government agencies. Based on inspiration drawn from the field of political ecology. Paper IV applies ‘webs of relation' approach to unwind inter-related factors behind cases of elephant killings in West Kilimanjaro. In recent years, there has been a considerable increase in elephant killings in Africa, for ivory'. I lowever, the ivory market is not the only reason why elephants are killed illegally. The results of Paper IV show that resistance to conservation is a reason behind elephant killings in this case, following appropriations of large tracts of land for conservation by external actors without the participation of local people. Local people suffer costs such as crop raiding, property damage, livestock deaths, and a threat to their own lives as they try to sustain a living on the remaining land that lies between conservation areas. In addition, they lack government support in chasing wildlife away from their fields, and they are not compensated for w ildlife damages. They are denied access to natural resources in the PAs. they are ill treated when found in the PAs. and they receive little or no benefits from conservation. Moreover, they lack land security, as there are more proposals from conservationists to create new conservation areas. This leaves people with an increased feeling of being marginalised and disempowered, with limited possibilities of influencing the situation through democratic means. Thus, local people resist conservation by killing wildlife. All areas studied (Enduimet WMA. Kilimanjaro National Park, and West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation) share a centralised structure in terms of decision making on the management of natural resources and benefit sharing. Local people are not able to participate in decision making in the management of the areas, and it is difficult for communities to influence or challenge the way the structure operates. In Enduimet. the WMA was proposed as community-run conservation area. In practice, the communities do not have the power to collect revenues, decide on shares, or to verify whether they receive the income they are entitled to receive. The central government collects the revenues and channels the percentage to local people. The Kilimanjaro National Park was found to involve local people only when there is a fire outbreak; thus local people claimed to be used as ‘tools’. The park management system docs not allow space lor local people’s opinions. Most of the collected revenues are retained by the national parks headquarters and local people do not have any power or influence over the revenues. In practice, the park operates under a strict “fences and fines’ or 'fortress conservation’ strategy. In the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation, local people do not have any power or share of the revenues collected from the sale of logs and poles, apart from payment received from casual labour. The income from logs sold is remitted to the central government. In all three areas, participation is used as ‘means’ to improve environmental conservation and a way to accrue more revenue for the government.
Contribution of tourism in improving the livelihoods ofthe communities in the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountains, Tanzania
(Sokoine University Of Agriculture., 2010) Emanuel, Naza
Tourism is the fastest growing industry and the largest in the world in terms of contribution to the Gross Domestic Product, and second after agriculture for providing employment. However, there is a paucity of information on how tourism improves the livelihood of the communities living in the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania. This study therefore sought to contribute some information to fill the existing knowledge gap. The study was conducted in four villages, namely Nugutu, Ruvuma, Mwaya and Mgudeni. Data were collected using household questionnaires, structured interviews, focus group discussion and field observation. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS and Microsoft excel computer software while qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis. Result shows that, only 32.5% of respondents articipated in tourism activities in the study villages. Limitations for their participation include: limited awareness on tourism, intensive engagement in agriculture, health problems, poor leadership and lack of interest. Local people participated in tourism activities through traditional dances, weaving, raditional cooking, handcrafts making, pottery, tour guiding and porter. Indicators of participation in tourism activities by local people include: presence of tourism projects in the village; income obtained from tourism and the inclusion of tourism as an agenda in the village meetings. Local communities benefited directly from tourism through income generation and employment opportunities and indirectly through market creation for local products and other benefits like provision of social services, conservation education, capacity building, women empowerment and cultural mprovements. Proportion of tourism income to the total household income was only 5% which was relatively low compared to agriculture (88%) and other sources (7%). The study recommends the need to provide the following to the local communities: education, training programs and awareness creation; supporting community development tourism projects; strengthening local leadership and sharing of the benefits accruing from tourism beyond National Parks.
The contribution of wildlife management areas on womens’ Well-being in enduimet division, Longido district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Temu, S. J
Wildlife management and conservation in Tanzania has passed several stages from colonial management programmes, to the establishment of the Wildlife Act of 1974. In addition, Wildlife Management Areas were established in 2003 as a way of ensuring communities bordering wildlife areas benefit from them. The Wildlife Management Areas are expected to contribute to the well-being of the surrounding communities. This study was undertaken to assess the contribution of Enduimet Wildlife Management Area on women’s well-being. Specifically, the study aimed at identifying the economic activities supported by it in the study area, assessing its contribution to women’s well-being and to examine the challenges faced by the women who are engaged in it. The study employed multistage sampling whereby Enduimet was purposefully selected and simple random sampling was used to select the study wards, villages and the respondents. The study used a cross-sectional research design to collect data from 120 respondents from Olmolog and Tinga Tinga villages. The findings show that the main economic activities supported by Enduimet Wildlife Management Area (EWMA) include provision of financial grants, road construction support, and provision of torches for scaring crops destructive animals. The study finding further show that EWMA contributes significantly (p ≤ 0.001) to women’s income at p=0.001. In addition, it also contributes to the women’s social well-being through provision of water services, gender training, building of classrooms and provision of scholarships to some families. The main challenges found in this study include destruction of crops by wild animals, injuries, and death of people and livestock. The study concludes that EWMA contributes to women’s well-being economically and socially. Based on the finding of the main challenges it is recommended that Wildlife Village Game Scout, District Game Officers, and Livestock and Extension officers should design, develop and advise communities on better methods of preventing destructive wild animals from destroying people’s crops and livestock.
Diversity of rodents and shrews in Tanzania and prevalence of their parasites: a case study of Zaraninge Coastal Forest and Gongo Village
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Mkude, Irene Romanus
Rodents are important in the ecology of mammals because they serve as predators, prey, pests, and grazers. Their composition, community structure, population density, and habitat utilization are linked to environmental variables like resource availability and biological interactions. In Zaraninge Coastal Forest, several studies on rodents and shrews were undertaken before and after it the Coastal Forest was incorporated to the Saadani National Park (SANAPA). However, these studies focused on distribution and diversity of specific species of mammals in the Coastal Forest. The studies reported that human encroachment in the Coastal forest as one of threats affecting the forest. Nonetheless, information on the diversity of rodents and shrews and their parasites after annexing the forest to the National park to enhance its protection was not availed. Thus, there is a knowledge gap on the parasites of rodents and shrews, given that the rodents and shrews are reservoirs of parasites that can be potential agents of transmitting diseases to human beings. So, it was crucial to investigate the diversity of rodents and shrews, but also investigate the parasites hosted in rodents and shrews that can transmit zoonotic diseases to human beings. The findings from the study aimed to provide information on the diversity of rodents and shrews, but also information of their parasites of health importance as most outbreaks of rodent-borne diseases in humans are commonly related to socio-economic deficiencies. The study was carried out from May to October 2021. The removal method using two types of traps –Sherman and Havahart was used to collect rodents and shrews. For ectoparasites, fur of the captured individuals were combed to dislodge ectoparasites, and for hemoparasites, blood samples were collected from a supra orbital vein and blood was smeared on glass slide to make smears. In analysis the Paleontological Statistics (PAST) Program version (3.22) and Microsoft Excel (2007) were used to analyze the data, which determined the diversity and relative abundance of rodents and shrews. The prevalence of parasites in he captured individuals was also investigated using the prevalence formula in the study. The Chi-square test was employed to investigate the link between the ectoparasites infestation and the individuals' sexes. About 203 individuals were caught in this study, where 197 individuals were rodents (Mastomys natalensis, Gramomys dolichurus, Gerbilliscus leucogaster, Lemniscomys rosalia, Cricetomys spp, Beamys hindei, Graphiurus murinus and Xerus rutilus) and 7 individuals were the non-rodentia (Crocidura hirta, Petrodromus tetradactylus and Galago spp. The study findings revealed that the rodents’ diversity value was higher in the Coastal Forest, than in the Gongo Fallow Lands. The diversity of rodents in Zaraninge Coastal Forest obtained was 1.49 and that of Gongo Fallow Land was 0.22, yet, there were no any statistically difference on the diversity of the two sites. Meanwhile, the shrew diversity appeared to be similar on both sites (0.6931). The trap success (abundances) for rodents ranged from 4.60% to 0.03%, while for the shrews ranged from 0.08% to 0.05%. The infestation of ectoparasites to rodents and shrews, was higher (92.2%) in the fallow lands of Gongo Village than in the Coastal forest which had 7.8%. However, the infection rate of hemoparasites to rodents and shrews was also higher (95.1%) in the fallow lands than in the Coastal forest (4.9%). There was no significant association of the parasites infection and infestation to the sexes of the individuals caught. Yet, the count of the ectoparasites was higher on the female rodents and shrews (1035) than that of the male rodents and shrews (1026). In this study, the ectoparasites obtained were the Echinolaelaps echidninus, Boophilus spp, Xenopyslla brasiliensis and Polyplax stephensi. E. echidninus had higher prevalence of 942.6% on rodents particularly on Mastomys natalensis while the lower prevalence was seen in P. stephensi. In shrews, Boophilus spp had the highest prevalence of 233.3% than other ectoparasites. On the account of hemoparasites, Plasmodium sp had higher prevalence of 59.8% while Bacillus sp had lower prevalence of 0.5%.Therefore, these findings raises a concern on the public health of the nearby community, livestock and the wildlife since their interaction is inevitable. The parasites found in this study are of zoonotic importance, hence it’s important to put emphasis on the hygiene of the people and the environment so as to avoid any eruption of the zoonotic diseases in the community. The findings on diversity provide the information on the importance of the conservation on habitats in order to preserve species. However, higher captures on fallow lands alerts the community on developing pests control strategies to protect their farms and houses from been invaded by rodents. Further studies on rodents and shrews of peri- domestic and domestic areas, reports on zoonotic diseases that maybe found in the nearby community, development of strategies to prevent rodents as destructive pest in farms are recommended so as to get more detailed information on the rodents and shrews in these areas
Diversity of terrestrial small mammals and prevalence of haemopathogens in rattus rattus of Mafia island, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Sirilo, Tecla Mageni
This study presents the diversity of terrestrial small mammals and prevalence of haemopathogens in Mafia Islands and the small islands (Chole, Jibondo, Juani and Shungimbili) which are associated with Mafia. Terrestrial small mammals comprise a group of mammals including volant and non-volant which are cosmopolitan and successful due to their wide range of feeding, adaptive reproduction strategies and habitat occupation. A study on the diversity of small mammals and their haemopathogens prevalence was conducted in Mafia Island and small islands associated with it from August to October 2021. A total of 120 rodents were captured by direct method using Sherman traps and indirectly using camera traps. Each directly trapped individual was immobilized with ethanol and parameters such as weight and sex were recorded. The samples that were taken include an earpiece which was preserved in Eppendorf tube containing 90% ethanol for further confirmatory species identification using molecular techniques. For the purpose of molecularly identifying the hemopathogens, 0.5 ml of blood was collected from the retro-orbital sinus using a capillary tube and kept as a dried blood spot on filter paper (Whatman paper). According to the findings, all of the collected rodents were classified as Rattus rattus and belonged to the RrC lineage I. One Crocidura hildegardae shrew was also trapped.Our camera traps recorded black and rufous sengi Rhynchocyon petersi, blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis, blue duiker Cephalophus monticola, the introduced Small Indian Genet Viverricula indica, and the red bush squirrel Paraxerus palliatus. Of the 120 Rattus rattus, 13.33% tested positive for Bartonella DNA. Prevalence between the six studied sites was significantly different (df = 5 and p-value <0.001). None of the rickettsia, leptospira, brucella, anaplasma, coxiella and trypanosoma was detected. Despite the limited time of data collection, our results show that there is low diversity of small mammals on the Mafia islands, with R. rattus dominating in all small islands. Also, the results show the presence of Uncultured Bartonella spp among other haemopathogen being obtained in R. rattus. The study recommends further studies in the rest of forest patches in Mafia and to also explore the diversity of flying mammals which was not included in this study but also to explore more on the prevalence of haemopathogens within the island. Key Words: Diversity, Small mammals, Rattus rattus, Haemopathogens, Bartonella, Mafia
The ecology of large herbivores in the Miombo woodlands of South East Tanzania
(The University of of Nairobi, 1979) Rodgers, William Alan
The studies described in this thesis arose from an ecological survey of part of the eastern side of the Selous Game Reserve in south east Tanzania from 1967 to 1975* The intensive study area contained two major, ecologically distinct, habitats, an area of tall grass miombo woodlahd and a smaller area of short grass scattered tree grassland. Several species of large grazing ungulate utilised thefce habitats, namely: buffalo, hartebeest, impala, sable, warthog, wildebeest and zebra* Seasonal changes in the environment such as the six month drought and widespread annual fires affect the pattern of habitat utilisation exhibited by each species. This thesis examines such utilisation and shows that each species has developed its own ecological and feeding strategies in order to maximise nutrient inputs and reproductive success in what is seasonally a harsh environment In many ways the miombo (Brachystegia) woodlands remain the least studied of the East African habitats This lack of data on the miombo in general and the Selous Game Reserve in particular means much of the thesis is taken up by descriptions of the physical and biotic environment of the study area. Following an introductory chapter the thesis is divided into three parts. Part one, with three chapters, describes the physical environment: geology, soil, climate, water and prehistory; the vegetation: community description, distribution and species composition, floristics and vegetation dynamics; and range factors of productivity and forage nutrient content Part two contains chapters on animal numbers, distribution patterns, feeding and nutrition and a chapter examining growth and reproduction as indices of population performance Part three concludes the thesis with a chapter reviewing the miombo woodlands and the Selous as a wildlife habitat and a final chapter discussing management policy for the Selous Game Reserve. The study area is low lying (100 - 700m asl) with a single rainy season from late November to early May (average 760mm p.a.) Despite a long hot dry season, surface water is relatively plentiful Habitat distribution is primarily controlled by geology and soil type with major modifications by fires and past human activity. The upland Karoo and post karoo sandstones give rise to infertile acidic red sandy soils which carry a climax-thicket formation These have been degraded into woodland by fire and settlement activity Lower down the drainage slope the flat Pleistocene river terrace of grits and sands has produced a hard alkaline sodic soil carrying short grass scattered tree grassland The drainage sump of recent alluvial clay carries tall floodplain grasses The vegetation is diverse, collections to date totalling over 1200 vascular plants including 150 grass species. The woodland vegetation shows strong affinities to the Zambezian flora,and the thicket, riverine and alkaline communities show affinities to the East African coastal flora o The thesis contains species lists and a vegetation community map. Fire has opened up the thickets producing tall grass woodlands of various types. Grasses, mainly Andropogonae, are coarse tussock perennials with very low nutritive values when dry* No burning allows the spread of woody and climbing species which engulf the grass layer and rapidly reduce grazing values* Late dry season fires reduce woody elements and plant diversities and leave coarse grass growth thoughout the dry season* Cooler early dry season fires maintain mixed woodland communities and a mixture of grass species and, where water tables allow, rapidly produce a flush of nutritious regenerating grass growth* Crude protein content of such growth can reach 20% although standing crop is low* The alkaline soils carry a short grass sward of mixed annual perennial species of high nutritive values in the rains* There is no flush after burning and dry season grazing values are low* Chapter 5 discusses techniques of animal census in detail* A vehicular ground sample census using fixed systematically placed transects was used for common ungulates* Rainy season densities on the short grass habitats are as follows: Impala 28*7/km2, wildebeest 27,2/km2, zebra l6*2/km^ and warthog 9*4/km2# Wildebeest and impala densities have remained unchanged for six years, zebra and warthog densities have increased significantly* Less detailed data are given for other species* Distribution data have been collected at several different scales from Tanzania wide, to the Selous, to the study area, to the different facets of a miombo valley-ridge catenary system* It is ‘shewn that 'salile *nd'‘L±ch’fcnrteins .'S* : ns hartebeest are restricted to tall grass woodland habitats, wildebeest and impala must have access to short grass areas in the rains and that buffalo, zebra and warthog, are more habitat tolerant but achieve higher densities on short grass habitats . Within the study area virtually all impala, warthog, wildebeest and zebra concentrate on the short grass areas in the rains, moving into the woodlands following the onset of burning Within the woodland habitat wildebeest and impala concentrate on the green flush of the valleys and avoid the unburnt areas and ridge tops. Sable and hartebeest are distributed throughout all categories and warthog and zebra are intermediate showing some selection of valley and green areas The onset of the November rains signals a return to the short grasslands Studies of feeding behaviour showed buffalo, hartebeest and wildebeest to be total grazers whilst sable and impala took significant proportions of browse in the dry season and warthog diet changed to perennial monocot roots and rhizomes. Feeding studies concentrated on wildebeest and impala and much data was obtained from post morterm analysis. By assuming that extrapolation of data from other large ungulate studies was unlikely to cause large relative errors it was possible to make estimates of protein and energy intakes and of theoretical nutrient needs for these two species. the rainy season both species had inputs greater than During theoretical requirements for maintenance, i e i positive nutritional balance. they were in As the dry season progressed T both male and female wildebeest which remained on the dry short grass habit entered a period of negative nutritional balance• However wildebeest moving to fresh flush in the woodlands were shown (albeit on less evidence) to maintain a positive balance. Impala at the onset of the dry season changed their diet to nutrient rich browse components and so maintained a positive nutritional balance. These two ! strategies of habitat change and dietary change have resulted in peak nutritional inputs at different times of year. Impala have peak inputs in September and wildebeest in i December periods. Onset of parturition coincides with these peak The nutritional load of gestation is minimal compared to that of lactation. Calving season therefore allows lactation and wearing of calves at the nutritional optimum time of year. Other species show different strategies, which allow a separation of niche space reducing competition for food resources Chapter eight shows that individual growth rate, body condition and fecundity rates are as high or higher than other populations in Africa., and that populations here are well adapted to the ecological conditions of this part of the Selous Game Reserve. This chapter discusses why the wildebeest population is stationary when nutrition is adequate, condition is good and fecundity is high. Predation by lion is put forward as a major limiting factor* The concluding chapters look at the miombo woodlands throughout Africa as wildlife reserves and suggest that only when tall grass woodlands are adjacent to other habitats such as short grassland or floodplains do animal densities reach levels high enough to warrant major conservation inputs* The importance of fire in providing dry season graze is stressed and fire management polices for the Selous are discussed* Past, present and future human impacts on the wilderness values of the Selous are examined and a plea is made for definite land use policy statements for south east Tanzania and the reserve*
Ecology of small mammals and their ectoparasites in Mount Meru, Tanzania: insights for biodiversity conservation
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Gebrezgiher, Genet Berhe
This Thesis has been prepared in accordance with the Publishable Manuscripts format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. The study on the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals over time, their demographic characteristics, and their associations with arthropod ectoparasites was conducted between 2021 and 2022 at different elevations and habitats in Tanzania's second- highest mountain, Mount Meru. Mount Meru is one of the biodiversity hotspots in eastern Africa, hosting high level of species richness and endemism, and providing important ecosystem services. However, relatively, little is known about the ecology of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites. Similarly, little is known about the effects of environmental factors on the small mammal distribution, which potentially extending to the parasites they host. Tanzania is among the handful of countries in Africa where active foci of deadly zoonotic diseases that can be transmitted by small mammals and their ectoparasite vectors have been persistent. Moreover, Mount Meru is home for endemic and threatened species that are documented on the IUCN Red List. However, there is currently no available information regarding the possible role of arthropod ectoparasites of small mammals in the transmission of zoonotic disease. The over all goal of the study was to understand the ecological dynamics and distribution patterns of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites across different elevations of Mount Meru in Tanzania. The study aimed at addressing three key specific objectives: i) Assesing a decade-long change in the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals on Mount Meru; ii) determining the breeding and demographic aspects of montemys delectorum, an east african endemic rodent in mount Meru; iii) Examining arthropod ectoparasites of two rodent species occurring in varied elevations on Tanzania’s second highest mountain. To address the first objective, the small mammals were surveyed from February to November 2021 at six elevations between 1500 m and 3650 m using Sherman and Havahart traps. The results show that two shrew and thirteen rodent species were recorded, including Crocidura newmarki and Lophuromys verhageni, which are endemic to the study area. Species richness was highest at mid-altitudes, in line with the general patterns globally, though less pronounced in Africa. The species Arvicanthis niloticus, Mastomys natalensis, Lemniscomys striatus, Dasymys incomtus, and Cricetomys ansorgei were not documented in 2009 but have been recorded in 2021. Upward shifts in species’ ranges were observed between 2009 and 2021, suggesting the influence of climate change on the small mammal community. It is important to note that the rodent species mentioned in Chapter 2 as Praomys species have been identified as Montemys delectorum after genetic identification and recent taxonomic revisions. For the second objective, a Capture – mark – release studies were undertaken in dense and open patchy forests in four 70 m X 70 m grids from February 2021 to June 2022. The findings revealed that the species exhibited bimodal patterns of breeding seasonality, characterized by a low rate occurring during the short interval between December and February and a pronounced rate taking place from May to July. The population of Montemys delectorum was unstable in the different forest types. There was a larger population in the patchy open forest (F = 8.1; df = 1; p = 0.0001) than in dense forest, suggesting its importance as a refuge for the species. To achieve the third objective, trapping of the two most dominant rodent species of the study area, Montemys delectorum and Rhabdomys dilectus, from five elevations (1500 to 3500 m), were examined for arthropod ectoparasite infestations. The results revealed that Ctenophthalmus calceatus cabirus, Dinopsyllus ellobius, Varroa rindereri, and Xenopsylla cheopis were recovered from the rodents. This study demonstrates that the elevational distribution of arthropod ectoparasites is influenced by host sex, host species, and environmental temperature. With rising altitude, parasite prevalence and abundance decrease, indicating that colder environmental conditions at higher altitudes inhibit parasite reproduction and development. This indicates conservation efforts should focus on higher altitudes. Moreover, the rodents and ectoparasites reported in this study have been identified as possible vectors of medical and veterinary diseases in different parts of Africa, including Tanzania. It is crucial to take precautions in order to effectively reduce the risk of parasitic infection, which can pose an additional threat to both the endemic and threatened species listed on the IUCN Red List as well as the overall biodiversity of the study area. Furthermore, molecular results from this study reported a previously unidentified mite species within the Mesostigmata taxonomic group that had previously been recognized exclusively as a parasite of honeybees. Further research efforts may provide insights into the significance of this particular species of mite, Varroa rindereri. Generally, while there remains much to be learned, this particular study establishes the foundation for future initiatives in wildlife disease surveillance and biodiversity conservation management. In abroader sense, the shift in the distribution of small mammals and their ectoparasites on Mount Meru is a microcosm of the broader challenges facing mountain ecosystems worldwide. These insights go beyond the immediate context of Mount Meru and suggest that we need to consider the long-term consequences of environmental dynamics on biodiversity conservation. As these complexities continue to shape mountain landscapes, their impact is not limited to species interactions but also touches the field of human well-being. The conservation of biodiversity is intrinsically linked to our own well- being, as biodiversity and human societies are intricately intertwined. Therefore, the findings of this research serve as an urgent reminder for effective conservation action.
Effect of Hormonal baits (Levonorgestrel and Quinestrol) on Fertility of Commensal Rat (Rattus rattus linnaeus, 1758)
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2021) Selemani, Mwajabu
This laboratory-based study examined the effects of quinestrol and levonorgestrel (singly and in combination) incorporated in bait on body mass and reproduction of the roof rat (Rattus rattus ). A total of 140 R. rattus, (70 males and 70 females) were provided with 10 g of bait containing quinestrol (QU) or levonorgestrel (LE) or a combination of levonorgestrel and quinestrol (EP-1) at concentrations of (10 ppm and 50 ppm) for seven consecutive days consecutively. After 7 days, animals were dissected and the ovary, uterus, testis, seminal vesicles, and epididymis were weighed and examined. Bait consumption and body weight decreased significantly (p = 0.0001) in treated compared to control animals, with a minor difference between sexes. Quinestrol and EP-1 at 10 ppm and 50 ppm increased the mass of the uterus and ovary of females (p = 0.0001), which was associated with edema in the uterus. The mass of epididymis, testis, seminal vesicles, were reduced and sperm counts and motility were significantly reduced (p = 0.0001) particularly in the animals with QU and EP-1 at the higher concentrations. To determine the effects of contraceptive hormones on reproduction, 50 ppm of QU and EP-1 were used. A total of 160 animals of equal numbers and sexes were paired, keeping the ratio of one female to one male. Pregnancy and litter production was significantly reduced (p = 0.0249) in the treated pairs when compared to controls. It is concluded that quinestrol and EP-1 have a significant impact on both males and females R. rattus reproduction compared to levonorgestrel alone. These hormones will be very valuable when used as a fundamental method in controlling R. rattu reproduction.
Effects of human-elephant interactions at water sharing points in villages adjacent to Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi Game Reserve, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Laizer, Irene James
The sharing of water sources by humans and elephants is one of the common practices in societies surrounding protected reserves in rural areas across Africa. However, there is little information known about how elephants in Tanzania utilizes water sources beyond formal protected areas and the strategies to manage these challenges. This study was conducted around Rungwa-Kizigo- Muhesi Game reserve in south-western Tanzania to address the following objectives: i) to identify the main types of water sources that are shared by people and elephants on village land, ii) to examine temporal patterns in elephant use of water sources on village land, iii) to assess the number and group composition of elephants that are using village water sources, and iv) to examine community experiences and perceptions resulting from sharing water sources with elephants. Data was collected via camera trapping (n=1,369 camera-trap days between November 2021 and May 2022), key informant interviews (n=25), and questionnaires (n=188 households) among households adjacent to water sources known to be used by elephants. Data from questionnaires and key informant interviews was analyzed by Statistical Package for Social Sciences software. The test statistics used was the chi-square goodness of fit test to test the likelihood of respondents having directly experienced a problem with elephants at a water source. Additionally, logistic regression was used to explore the effect of village habitation, sex, education, age, duration of residency, and experience of respondents on willingness to share the same water sources with elephants. Camera trap images were classified using ExifPro 2.1 software and the overlap package in R software was used to generate smoothed non-parametric kernel density distributions showing the timing of elephant visits to water sources over 24 hours. Results showed that shallow wells dug by hand provided the majority of the villager‟s water needs, and 92% of elephant camera trap detections occurred there. The camera traps detected 24 elephant visits to water sources, all of which occurred at night. Female-led cow-calf groups were present in 58.3% of visits and male elephants were present in 75.0% of visits. From camera trap photos, we identified at least three distinct cow-calf groups and eleven distinct bulls. Analysis of social-economic data revealed that the majority of households (85.0%) had witnessed elephants at their primary water source and 85.2% of respondents stated they had directly experienced a problem when using a water source that was also being used by elephants. It was further revealed that women were more likely than men to have directly experienced problems with elephants. Generally, around 59.9% of respondents were unwilling to share water sources with elephants. In conclusion, key findings include the prevalence of hand-dug shallow wells as the primary water source for villagers with a high incidence of elephant visits, particularly at night. The main concerns were: elephant damage to shallow wells, delays due to elephant presence at water sources, fear of meeting elephants at water sources, water contamination, elephants being trapped inside wells, and elephants dying inside wells. To address these concerns, community members recommended constructing boreholes and communal water taps and increasing support from Game reserve rangers when elephants are on village land.
Effects of prescribed burning on rodent community ecology in Serengeti national park, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2020) Manyonyi, A. M
A study on the effects of prescribed burning on rodent community ecology was conducted in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. The study aimed at generating ecological knowledge on the changes in rodent communities when areas of the park are intentionally burned to regulate grasslands or reduce undergrowth that can lead to uncontrolled forest fires. A Complete Randomized Design (CRD) factorial layout with two treatments (burned and unburned) and two replications was applied. A total of 148 animals comprising six species of rodents and one insectivore were captured over 2,940 trap nights. Among the trapped individuals, 41.9% were adults, 16.1% juveniles and 41.9% sub-adults. Males and females were at parity between treatments. Species abundance was estimated using the Minimum Number Alive method for different rodent species and was found to vary with treatment, where Mastomys natalensis declined in burned plots whilst Arvicanthis niloticus increased. However, species diversity did not differ across treatments (F1, 10 = 0.15, p = 0.70). Differences in the reproductive condition of female M. natalensis (z = 4.408, df = 15, p = 0.000) and A. niloticus (z = 2.381, df = 15, p = 0.017) were observed between treatments showing that higher numbers of reproductively active females were observed in burned plots in March, whilst in unburned plots it was from November to February. Conservation strategies involving periodic habitat burning should, therefore, consider small mammal reproductive periods to ensure that potentially at risk species are not adversely affected and able to rapidly recover from the effects of burning on temporarily lowering food resources and longer term impacts of increased predation caused by reduced cover.
Effects of vegetation burning on the foraging strategy of waterbuck, wildebeest and reedbuck in a moist savanna of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Leweri, Cecilia Martin
Savannah grasslands are occupied by large mammal herbivores whose ecological separation between and within each guild have resulted to different foraging strategies and preference for forage differing in attributes to reduce competition between them. Therefore, the current study aimed at: 1) measuring the relative use of burnt and non-burnt areas by waterbuck, wildebeest and reedbuck, and their possible shifts between the two patches over time; 2) assessing forage characteristics in grazed sites on burnt and non- burnt sites along with the post fire nutritive quality of the grasses; and 3) testing the notion that waterbuck is an intermediate grazer between wildebeest, a bulk grazer and Bohor reedbuck, a selective grazer. The study was conducted during dry season in Saadan National Park, a moist, tall-grass savanna. The animals were found not equally distributed between the two grassland patches, with most occupying burned areas. On the other hand, previously grazed patches were actively selected for feeding, and Nitrogen content of the main forage grass species was high in grass samples collected 80 days since fire. Contrary, NDF and ADF concentrations were very low in grass samples collected 80 days post fire but increased after six months. Reedbuck had the shortest bout lengths for all behaviours whereas waterbuck showed the longest bout sessions. Reedbuck grazed at taller grass height than waterbuck and wildebeest grazed the shortest grassland patches. Wildebeest grazed mainly on Panicum infestum despite of its greenness status while the waterbuck and reedbuck grazed mostly on green materials. The non-random patterns in animal’s distribution between burnt and non-burnt grassland patches suggests that fire is an important adaptive management strategy for Saadani National Park.
Epidemiology of Bovine tuberculosis in cattle and selected wild animals in the interface of Katavi Rukwa ecosystem, Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture., 2015) Makondo, Zachariah Ephraim
A study on epidemiology bovine tuberculosis (BTB) in wildlife-livestock interface was undertaken in Katavi-Rukwa Ecosystem (KRE). The objective of the study was to generate epidemiology data of BTB in KRE interface. This study aimed to isolate members of the mycobacteria tuberculosis complex (MTC), determine the prevalence of the disease as well as evaluating Bovigam® and Stat Pak® serological diagnostic test. In year 2010 to 2012, 789 cattle were examined by single comparative intradermal tuberculin test (SCITT) and 328 livestock tissues were cultured. One hundred and seventy eight wild animals were also sampled; among these, 119 tissue samples from buffalo, lion, leopard and hartebeest were sampled opportunistically during professional hunting and game cropping operations in the protected areas. Out of 789 cattle tested, SCITT results indicated prevalence of 4.6 % [(95% confidence interval CI, 3.4-5.9)] and 10.7% [(95% CI, 7.8-11.9)] at ≥4 mm and >2 mm cut off, respectively. The prevalence was significantly affected by sex (female 5%, χ2= 56.4, p=0.03) and age (>2 years 5.8%, p=0.017). Typical tuberculous lesions were detected in 80% of tuberculosis reactor cattle tested from slaughter houses; among these, four isolates were MTC and were further genetically classified. Three isolates were identified as M. bovis strains and one isolate was M. tuberculosis. M. bovis isolates were grouped into three clusters of strains, and M. tuberculosis isolate was typified as East African Indian sub lineage (SIT 48, EAI1-SOM). Three clusters of M. bovis strains were identified as SB0133 and SB1467 reported elsewhere in the world while a new spoligotype pattern was identified and reported for the first time referenced as SB2191 in M. bovis spoligotype database. Non tuberculous mycobacteria were detected in 25.9% and 12.6% of livestock and wildlife tissue cultures, respectively suggesting transmission in area. Bovigam was in good agreement with SCITT (p=0.001) in diagnosis of disease. It is recommended to government authority to use multisectoral, one health disease control strategy, in order to prevent the infected livestock to serve as a source of infection to wild animals or the other way around in the interface. Planning for BTB sensitization during disease control implementation is equally important.
Evaluate the implementation of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs)
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2010) Kalimba, Augustine Felician
A study to evaluate the implementation of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) with reference to Twatwatwa pilot WMA Kilosa district was conducted from October 2007 to December, 2007. Specifically the study assessed the involvement of local communities in the pilot WMA, assessed the capacity and ability of communities in the process required for the implementation of pilot WMA, identified the benefits and damages to local communities as a result of pilot WMA implementation and found out the contribution made by facilitators towards WMA implementation. A cross sectional research design was adopted. Data collection process involved the use of structured questionnaire. Sampling intensity was set at 10% for Twatwatwa , Mbwade and Rudewa villages while a 5% sampling intensity for Msowero village was adopted. A total of 280 respondents were involved in this exercise. To supplement the information obtained from questionnaire, key informants and focus group discussion were used. The data collected by questionnaires were analyzed using Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) computer software. Chi square (χ 2 ) was used to test the association between respondents’ level of education and their involvement in pilot WMA activities. Results showed that there was a significant association between the two variables (p<0.01) Results for education level indicate that 67.9% of respondents had primary education, 3.6% secondary education, 19.6% had no formal education while 8.9% had adult education. The results indicate that the highest number of the respondents (51.1%) was aged between 31 and 45 years. Most of respondents (93.6%) were males while 6.4% were females. A significant number of the respondents (76.6%) were married. Results showed that 85.0% of respondents were engaged in agriculture while only 15.0% were engaged in livestock keeping. The majority of villagers (95.0%) were not involved in pilot WMA activities ever since the implementation of WMA became stalled. The highest number of respondents (97.1%) indicated that villagers were not capable to implement WMA on their own. Most of the respondents (71.0%) had no benefits from pilot WMA. Contributions made by facilitators towards WMA implementation were not enough. The study concludes that implementation of Twatwatwa WMA stagnated mainly due to conflict between peasants and livestock keepers as well as due lack of funds that was supposed to come from the Government and NGOs. Furthermore, villagers were no longer involved in pilot WMA, had no capacity and capability to implement the WMA on their own owing to lack of expertise, had fewer benefits than costs and had received inadequate contributions from the Government and NGOs for the purpose of WMA implementation. The study recommends that the Government must help member villages to permanently resolve their conflict. Government should assist villagers to acquire funds for WMA implementation process. Villagers need to be educated on WMA issues as this will enable them to become involved in the daily running of the WMA.
Factors affecting wildlife based domestic tourism in the northern tourist circuit, Tanzania
(Sokoine University Of Agriculture, 2006) Mariki, Sayuni
The study on factors affecting domestic tourism was carried out in northern Tanzania tourist circuit. The study had the following objectives: (i) To determine the characteristics of domestic tourists, (ii) To assess the trend in tourism and domestic tourism, (iii) To identify and assess factors affecting domestic tourism, (iv) To assess efforts undertaken to promote domestic tourism, (v) To propose ways by which domestic tourism can be improved. A sample of 140 domestic tourists, 142 selected individuals from markets and streets, 27 tour operators, 5 Protected areas (PAs) management staff, 6 PAs gate clerks and park guides, and 2 tourist organizations were interviewed. The results revealed that: (i) The age group of 26 - 37 was the most active group in visiting protected areas. The age groups of <20 years and >49 years rarely visited the PAs (ii) Low income was indicated as the main constraint (77.0%) affecting the growth of domestic tourism, followed by lack of awareness (71.8%), tourism education (53.0%) and lack of interest to travel (53.0%). (iii) There was a linear increase in the number of tourists in the three PAs from 1998 — 2003 due to the improvement of activities, facilities and services, (iv) Tourism education to all people, and improvement of services and facilities were the opinions given for the improvement of domestic tourism. It is recommended that, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism through its departments and organizations should put more efforts in domestic tourism promotion and marketing by using many and different ways since many factors found to affect domestic tourism in the country that had different weights of importance.
Factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures sustainability and socio-economic impacts among small holders farmers in Mbeya rural district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Seenga, Rehema Barnabas
Soil degradation attributed by erosion threatens agriculture production in many regions of Tanzania, consequently food insecurity and drawback poverty reduction efforts. Though various soil conservation measures (SCM) have been introduced and practiced by farmers, the extent of their adoption and sustainability are not clear. The objective of this study was to assess the factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures, their sustainability, and socio-economic impacts among small-holder farmers in Mbeya Rural District. Specifically, the study aimed at assessing, quantifying and documenting factors that influence adoption of SCM, farmers’ opinions on sustainability of SCM and the impacts of the existing SCM on crops yields. Shibolya and Usoha Muungano villages in Tembela ward were selected on the basis of SCM project receivers. A sample of 100 smallholder farmers was selected randomly. Primary data were collected through semi structured questionnaire. Secondary data were collected from various documents and sources. Descriptive analysis such as frequencies, cross tabulations, chi-square test were performed, t-test and linear regression were used for yield comparison of adopters and non-adopters and relationship establishment between adopters and socio-economic characteristics of farmers respectively. Results showed significant influence on personal factors (age and education) socio-economic factors (non- farm activities, farm size and fertilizer use), institutional factors (technical support, distance to market and training), biophysical factors (topography, types of soil erosion and soil fertility) among farmers. About 58% of opinions in regards to sustainablility of the SCM required regular soil management, 23% suggested more education on SCM. Adoption of SCM increased farmers’ maize and pyrethrum yield by an average of 27.8% and 26.8% respectively above non-adopters. Thus, SCM have resulted into substantial improvement in farm yields. Educating farmers regularly, consideration of farmers’ opinions and implementation of SCM are recommended.
Human-crocodile conflicts in areas adjacent to Lake Rukwa and Momba River, Momba District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Frank, Zakayo
Conflicts between human and crocodiles are increasing due to increase in human population. The conflicts have significant impacts on both human and crocodile populations. The study focused on assessment of human-crocodile conflicts in areas adjacent to Lake Rukwa and Momba River, Momba District, Mbeya Region Tanzania, for the period of 2003 to 2012. Cross-sectional research design and purposive sampling of villages were used in data collection. A total of 120 households were randomly sampled from four villages of Kamsamba, Senga, Muuyu and Samang’ombe. Data were collected using direct observation, structured interviews, focus group discussions and key informants interview. Simple descriptive statistics, cross tabulations and Chi-square test were used to analyze data. The causes of human-crocodile conflicts identified include: - fishing, crossing rivers, water for domestic use, and bathing/swimming. The main crocodile damage reported were:- killing of people, livestock depredation, injury/deformity to people, damages on fishing nets and crocodiles were blamed to cause threats to people’s life. During the period of 2003 to 2012, a total of 32 people were killed and 19 were injured by crocodiles. On the same period, crocodiles were reported to have killed 52 cattle, 10 dogs and 23 goats. It was found that most crocodile attacks occurred during the wet season from the period of January to March. Overall, many crocodiles attacks on people occurred while they were fishing or crossing rivers. The methods used in solving human-crocodile conflicts involved killing harmful crocodiles, avoiding going near the lake/rivers, digging water wells and providing education to communities on ways of avoiding crocodiles. The study recommends the supply of clean water to villagers of Kamsamba, Senga, Muuyu and Samang’ombe, and bridges to be constructed across rivers where most people pass when going to either side of the rivers.

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