Theses and Dissertations Collection

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The ecology of large herbivores in the Miombo woodlands of South East Tanzania
(The University of of Nairobi, 1979) Rodgers, William Alan
The studies described in this thesis arose from an ecological survey of part of the eastern side of the Selous Game Reserve in south east Tanzania from 1967 to 1975* The intensive study area contained two major, ecologically distinct, habitats, an area of tall grass miombo woodlahd and a smaller area of short grass scattered tree grassland. Several species of large grazing ungulate utilised thefce habitats, namely: buffalo, hartebeest, impala, sable, warthog, wildebeest and zebra* Seasonal changes in the environment such as the six month drought and widespread annual fires affect the pattern of habitat utilisation exhibited by each species. This thesis examines such utilisation and shows that each species has developed its own ecological and feeding strategies in order to maximise nutrient inputs and reproductive success in what is seasonally a harsh environment In many ways the miombo (Brachystegia) woodlands remain the least studied of the East African habitats This lack of data on the miombo in general and the Selous Game Reserve in particular means much of the thesis is taken up by descriptions of the physical and biotic environment of the study area. Following an introductory chapter the thesis is divided into three parts. Part one, with three chapters, describes the physical environment: geology, soil, climate, water and prehistory; the vegetation: community description, distribution and species composition, floristics and vegetation dynamics; and range factors of productivity and forage nutrient content Part two contains chapters on animal numbers, distribution patterns, feeding and nutrition and a chapter examining growth and reproduction as indices of population performance Part three concludes the thesis with a chapter reviewing the miombo woodlands and the Selous as a wildlife habitat and a final chapter discussing management policy for the Selous Game Reserve. The study area is low lying (100 - 700m asl) with a single rainy season from late November to early May (average 760mm p.a.) Despite a long hot dry season, surface water is relatively plentiful Habitat distribution is primarily controlled by geology and soil type with major modifications by fires and past human activity. The upland Karoo and post karoo sandstones give rise to infertile acidic red sandy soils which carry a climax-thicket formation These have been degraded into woodland by fire and settlement activity Lower down the drainage slope the flat Pleistocene river terrace of grits and sands has produced a hard alkaline sodic soil carrying short grass scattered tree grassland The drainage sump of recent alluvial clay carries tall floodplain grasses The vegetation is diverse, collections to date totalling over 1200 vascular plants including 150 grass species. The woodland vegetation shows strong affinities to the Zambezian flora,and the thicket, riverine and alkaline communities show affinities to the East African coastal flora o The thesis contains species lists and a vegetation community map. Fire has opened up the thickets producing tall grass woodlands of various types. Grasses, mainly Andropogonae, are coarse tussock perennials with very low nutritive values when dry* No burning allows the spread of woody and climbing species which engulf the grass layer and rapidly reduce grazing values* Late dry season fires reduce woody elements and plant diversities and leave coarse grass growth thoughout the dry season* Cooler early dry season fires maintain mixed woodland communities and a mixture of grass species and, where water tables allow, rapidly produce a flush of nutritious regenerating grass growth* Crude protein content of such growth can reach 20% although standing crop is low* The alkaline soils carry a short grass sward of mixed annual perennial species of high nutritive values in the rains* There is no flush after burning and dry season grazing values are low* Chapter 5 discusses techniques of animal census in detail* A vehicular ground sample census using fixed systematically placed transects was used for common ungulates* Rainy season densities on the short grass habitats are as follows: Impala 28*7/km2, wildebeest 27,2/km2, zebra l6*2/km^ and warthog 9*4/km2# Wildebeest and impala densities have remained unchanged for six years, zebra and warthog densities have increased significantly* Less detailed data are given for other species* Distribution data have been collected at several different scales from Tanzania wide, to the Selous, to the study area, to the different facets of a miombo valley-ridge catenary system* It is ‘shewn that 'salile *nd'‘L±ch’fcnrteins .'S* : ns hartebeest are restricted to tall grass woodland habitats, wildebeest and impala must have access to short grass areas in the rains and that buffalo, zebra and warthog, are more habitat tolerant but achieve higher densities on short grass habitats . Within the study area virtually all impala, warthog, wildebeest and zebra concentrate on the short grass areas in the rains, moving into the woodlands following the onset of burning Within the woodland habitat wildebeest and impala concentrate on the green flush of the valleys and avoid the unburnt areas and ridge tops. Sable and hartebeest are distributed throughout all categories and warthog and zebra are intermediate showing some selection of valley and green areas The onset of the November rains signals a return to the short grasslands Studies of feeding behaviour showed buffalo, hartebeest and wildebeest to be total grazers whilst sable and impala took significant proportions of browse in the dry season and warthog diet changed to perennial monocot roots and rhizomes. Feeding studies concentrated on wildebeest and impala and much data was obtained from post morterm analysis. By assuming that extrapolation of data from other large ungulate studies was unlikely to cause large relative errors it was possible to make estimates of protein and energy intakes and of theoretical nutrient needs for these two species. the rainy season both species had inputs greater than During theoretical requirements for maintenance, i e i positive nutritional balance. they were in As the dry season progressed T both male and female wildebeest which remained on the dry short grass habit entered a period of negative nutritional balance• However wildebeest moving to fresh flush in the woodlands were shown (albeit on less evidence) to maintain a positive balance. Impala at the onset of the dry season changed their diet to nutrient rich browse components and so maintained a positive nutritional balance. These two ! strategies of habitat change and dietary change have resulted in peak nutritional inputs at different times of year. Impala have peak inputs in September and wildebeest in i December periods. Onset of parturition coincides with these peak The nutritional load of gestation is minimal compared to that of lactation. Calving season therefore allows lactation and wearing of calves at the nutritional optimum time of year. Other species show different strategies, which allow a separation of niche space reducing competition for food resources Chapter eight shows that individual growth rate, body condition and fecundity rates are as high or higher than other populations in Africa., and that populations here are well adapted to the ecological conditions of this part of the Selous Game Reserve. This chapter discusses why the wildebeest population is stationary when nutrition is adequate, condition is good and fecundity is high. Predation by lion is put forward as a major limiting factor* The concluding chapters look at the miombo woodlands throughout Africa as wildlife reserves and suggest that only when tall grass woodlands are adjacent to other habitats such as short grassland or floodplains do animal densities reach levels high enough to warrant major conservation inputs* The importance of fire in providing dry season graze is stressed and fire management polices for the Selous are discussed* Past, present and future human impacts on the wilderness values of the Selous are examined and a plea is made for definite land use policy statements for south east Tanzania and the reserve*
The role of local communities in wildlife management: a case study of the Serengeti regional conservation project, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2003) Ngowe, Nollasco Matozi
The study was conducted in the western corridor of the Serengeti National Park between October 2001 and January 2002. Tire study area included villages bordering the Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserve, Ikoma Wildlife Management Area, and the Serengeti National Park. Specifically, the study was intended to assess the effectiveness of local communities in wildlife management; assess the relationship between the local community and wildlife authorities; and assess if there is any decline in poaching in the study villages. The study involved four villages of 14 villages under the SRCP where in each village, at least 5% of the households were sampled. Primary data were obtained from questionnaire survey, focus group discussions, check list and the researcher’s observations. The study revealed that both village natural resources committees (VNRCs) and village game scouts (VGS) were significantly effective in combating poaching than expected (%2 = 108.3, p<0.001 and %2 = 90.13, p<0.001, for VNRCs and VGS respectively). The relationship with wildlife authorities was said to be excellent by 29.2% of the respondents, 69.2% said there was good relations while 1.7% said it was poor. Furthermore, 98.3% of respondents said poaching has decreased since the introduction of community-based conservation by SRCP. Poaching was ranked as the most important threat to wildlife conservation, followed by lack of community participation in wildlife management, increasing livestock numbers, and agriculture. Other problems in the area included severe shortage of water for livestock during the dry season was pointed out by 83.3% of the respondents while 50% stated the shortage of grazing area. Crop damage was also a problem and the most problem animals mentioned by respondents were bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus) (84.2%), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) (77.5%), olive baboon (Papio anubis anubis) (55.0%), and the elephant (Loxodonta africana) (44.4%). On the other hand, communities received a total of 36 millions TAS (equivalent to 45.5 thousands USD) from 1998 to 2001 as a form of tangible benefits from the community wildlife hunting and 44 million TAS (equivalent to 48.1 thousands USD) from non-consumptive photographic safaris. The study concludes that active participatory approaches that are used by SRCP have contributed to the success of the project in winning support of local communities at the grass root level. Local communities arc treated with respect, as equal partners in conservation, not as targets of conservation or education projects. Decision making power is shared, and the role of the project staff is to act as catalysts and intermediaries. Based on the study, the following recommendations are given: -More support should be provided to the village game scouts. -There should be integration between crop and livestock production system. -Wildlife conservation education should be added in the primary school syllabus. -The use of non-lethal deterrents for crop protection against wildlife especially elephants should be researched in the area. -Villages should be assisted in exploring the potential investors especially on photographic tourism and tourist hunting.
Factors affecting wildlife based domestic tourism in the northern tourist circuit, Tanzania
(Sokoine University Of Agriculture, 2006) Mariki, Sayuni
The study on factors affecting domestic tourism was carried out in northern Tanzania tourist circuit. The study had the following objectives: (i) To determine the characteristics of domestic tourists, (ii) To assess the trend in tourism and domestic tourism, (iii) To identify and assess factors affecting domestic tourism, (iv) To assess efforts undertaken to promote domestic tourism, (v) To propose ways by which domestic tourism can be improved. A sample of 140 domestic tourists, 142 selected individuals from markets and streets, 27 tour operators, 5 Protected areas (PAs) management staff, 6 PAs gate clerks and park guides, and 2 tourist organizations were interviewed. The results revealed that: (i) The age group of 26 - 37 was the most active group in visiting protected areas. The age groups of <20 years and >49 years rarely visited the PAs (ii) Low income was indicated as the main constraint (77.0%) affecting the growth of domestic tourism, followed by lack of awareness (71.8%), tourism education (53.0%) and lack of interest to travel (53.0%). (iii) There was a linear increase in the number of tourists in the three PAs from 1998 — 2003 due to the improvement of activities, facilities and services, (iv) Tourism education to all people, and improvement of services and facilities were the opinions given for the improvement of domestic tourism. It is recommended that, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism through its departments and organizations should put more efforts in domestic tourism promotion and marketing by using many and different ways since many factors found to affect domestic tourism in the country that had different weights of importance.
Evaluate the implementation of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs)
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2010) Kalimba, Augustine Felician
A study to evaluate the implementation of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) with reference to Twatwatwa pilot WMA Kilosa district was conducted from October 2007 to December, 2007. Specifically the study assessed the involvement of local communities in the pilot WMA, assessed the capacity and ability of communities in the process required for the implementation of pilot WMA, identified the benefits and damages to local communities as a result of pilot WMA implementation and found out the contribution made by facilitators towards WMA implementation. A cross sectional research design was adopted. Data collection process involved the use of structured questionnaire. Sampling intensity was set at 10% for Twatwatwa , Mbwade and Rudewa villages while a 5% sampling intensity for Msowero village was adopted. A total of 280 respondents were involved in this exercise. To supplement the information obtained from questionnaire, key informants and focus group discussion were used. The data collected by questionnaires were analyzed using Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) computer software. Chi square (χ 2 ) was used to test the association between respondents’ level of education and their involvement in pilot WMA activities. Results showed that there was a significant association between the two variables (p<0.01) Results for education level indicate that 67.9% of respondents had primary education, 3.6% secondary education, 19.6% had no formal education while 8.9% had adult education. The results indicate that the highest number of the respondents (51.1%) was aged between 31 and 45 years. Most of respondents (93.6%) were males while 6.4% were females. A significant number of the respondents (76.6%) were married. Results showed that 85.0% of respondents were engaged in agriculture while only 15.0% were engaged in livestock keeping. The majority of villagers (95.0%) were not involved in pilot WMA activities ever since the implementation of WMA became stalled. The highest number of respondents (97.1%) indicated that villagers were not capable to implement WMA on their own. Most of the respondents (71.0%) had no benefits from pilot WMA. Contributions made by facilitators towards WMA implementation were not enough. The study concludes that implementation of Twatwatwa WMA stagnated mainly due to conflict between peasants and livestock keepers as well as due lack of funds that was supposed to come from the Government and NGOs. Furthermore, villagers were no longer involved in pilot WMA, had no capacity and capability to implement the WMA on their own owing to lack of expertise, had fewer benefits than costs and had received inadequate contributions from the Government and NGOs for the purpose of WMA implementation. The study recommends that the Government must help member villages to permanently resolve their conflict. Government should assist villagers to acquire funds for WMA implementation process. Villagers need to be educated on WMA issues as this will enable them to become involved in the daily running of the WMA.
Contribution of tourism in improving the livelihoods ofthe communities in the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountains, Tanzania
(Sokoine University Of Agriculture., 2010) Emanuel, Naza
Tourism is the fastest growing industry and the largest in the world in terms of contribution to the Gross Domestic Product, and second after agriculture for providing employment. However, there is a paucity of information on how tourism improves the livelihood of the communities living in the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania. This study therefore sought to contribute some information to fill the existing knowledge gap. The study was conducted in four villages, namely Nugutu, Ruvuma, Mwaya and Mgudeni. Data were collected using household questionnaires, structured interviews, focus group discussion and field observation. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS and Microsoft excel computer software while qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis. Result shows that, only 32.5% of respondents articipated in tourism activities in the study villages. Limitations for their participation include: limited awareness on tourism, intensive engagement in agriculture, health problems, poor leadership and lack of interest. Local people participated in tourism activities through traditional dances, weaving, raditional cooking, handcrafts making, pottery, tour guiding and porter. Indicators of participation in tourism activities by local people include: presence of tourism projects in the village; income obtained from tourism and the inclusion of tourism as an agenda in the village meetings. Local communities benefited directly from tourism through income generation and employment opportunities and indirectly through market creation for local products and other benefits like provision of social services, conservation education, capacity building, women empowerment and cultural mprovements. Proportion of tourism income to the total household income was only 5% which was relatively low compared to agriculture (88%) and other sources (7%). The study recommends the need to provide the following to the local communities: education, training programs and awareness creation; supporting community development tourism projects; strengthening local leadership and sharing of the benefits accruing from tourism beyond National Parks.
Impacts of human activities on the conservation of igando- igawa wildlife corridor in Njombe and Mbarali districts, Tanzania .
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2010) Massawe, Godfrey Magetta
Wildlife corridors are features connecting two or more otherwise isolated patches of habitat and are among the areas of land affected by human activities. Corridors are much affected because in most cases they are not legally protected. This study assessed the impacts of human activities on the conservation of Igando-Igawa wildlife corridor in Mbarali and Njombe Districts. Specifically, the study determined socio-economic and cultural activities, the level of human disturbances to habitat as well as identifying wildlife using the corridor. A cross-sectional sampling design was employed where five villages were purposively selected for questionnaire based interviews (QBI) and focus group discussions. A total of 120 respondents were randomly selected for QBI. Disturbances were assessed by field survey in which five transects with 43 plots were located systematically in the entire corridor. SPSS package was employed for analysing socio- economic and cultural data. The excel computer programme was used to analyse resource utilisation pressure gradient. Results revealed various human activities in the corridor, namely; cultivation, pastoralism, firewood collection, poles/withies harvesting, charcoal making, hunting and logging/lumbering. Wildfires, rituals and collection of medicinal plants were other activities affecting the corridor. The use of vegetation resources before conservation begun in 2005/06 was significantly high (p = 0.001, t = 3.07). Tree resources were intensively extracted whereby 61.9 % were harvested. However there was a significant reduction in harvesting tree resources (p = 0.0001, t = 7.11) after conservation activities begun in 2005/2006. During the study, the corridor was harbouring at least 27 species of mammals, 20 of birds and eight families of herps. The corridor’s ecological status had shown significant improvement in terms of wildlife and vegetations. Nevertheless, the study recommends special programmes to alleviate local community poverty around the corridor. Further studies on socio-economic and ecological issues are also suggested.
Potentials and constraints of eco-tourism in improving Nature conservation and livelihoods: The case of Amani Nature reserve, Tanzania
(SUA, 2010) SHOO, REHEMA ABELI
Amani Nature Reserve (ANR), which is within the Eastern Arc Mountains, is well known for its biological and ecological values. Eco-tourism is being practiced in the reserve. However, despite the fact that eco-tourism has been proposed as a viable economic activity that can minimize negative human impacts on wildlife habitat and provide an incentive to preserve natural areas, little has been reported on the potentials and constraints of the practice in the area. This study was conducted in the villages adjacent to ANR, to determine the potentials and constraints of eco-tourism in nature conservation and livelihoods improvement in and around ANR. Questionnaire survey, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and key informant interviews were the methods used in data collection. The results reveal that there are enormous natural (flora, fauna and sceneries) and cultural resources for development of productive eco-tourism in ANR. However, the existing potential is not fully exploited. Despite an increase in tourists and hence revenues in ANR, little is accrued by the local communities. Results further show that eco-tourism contributed only 9.6% to total household income annually and only 22.7% of the surveyed households were engaged in eco-tourism-relatcd activities. The study concludes that the existing level and type of involvement in eco-tourism is not effective enough to bring about significant impact, which comes into view that the potentials for eco-tourism in improving livelihoods is yet to be realized in the area. Increased local community involvements in tourism in order to improve people’s livelihoods and to enable them understand the inter-relationships between humans and the environment are recommended.iii DECLARATION I, REHEMA ABEL! SHOO, do hereby declare to the senate of Sokoine University of
Effects of vegetation burning on the foraging strategy of waterbuck, wildebeest and reedbuck in a moist savanna of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Leweri, Cecilia Martin
Savannah grasslands are occupied by large mammal herbivores whose ecological separation between and within each guild have resulted to different foraging strategies and preference for forage differing in attributes to reduce competition between them. Therefore, the current study aimed at: 1) measuring the relative use of burnt and non-burnt areas by waterbuck, wildebeest and reedbuck, and their possible shifts between the two patches over time; 2) assessing forage characteristics in grazed sites on burnt and non- burnt sites along with the post fire nutritive quality of the grasses; and 3) testing the notion that waterbuck is an intermediate grazer between wildebeest, a bulk grazer and Bohor reedbuck, a selective grazer. The study was conducted during dry season in Saadan National Park, a moist, tall-grass savanna. The animals were found not equally distributed between the two grassland patches, with most occupying burned areas. On the other hand, previously grazed patches were actively selected for feeding, and Nitrogen content of the main forage grass species was high in grass samples collected 80 days since fire. Contrary, NDF and ADF concentrations were very low in grass samples collected 80 days post fire but increased after six months. Reedbuck had the shortest bout lengths for all behaviours whereas waterbuck showed the longest bout sessions. Reedbuck grazed at taller grass height than waterbuck and wildebeest grazed the shortest grassland patches. Wildebeest grazed mainly on Panicum infestum despite of its greenness status while the waterbuck and reedbuck grazed mostly on green materials. The non-random patterns in animal’s distribution between burnt and non-burnt grassland patches suggests that fire is an important adaptive management strategy for Saadani National Park.
The role of Bahi swamp wetland in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2012) RWEYEMAMU,RENATUS
1’hc study was conducted to assess the role of Bahi swamp resources in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities. Specifically, the study assessed the socioeconomic activities in the swamp with a potential contribution to local livelihoods, the contribution of the swamp in enhancing household food security and income and the level of local dependence on the sw'amp. Two villages (Makulu and Nagulo-Bahi) were involved. Data were collected through questionnaire, PRA techniques (resource mapping, key informant interviews and focused group discussions) and direct observation. Data were summarized and analysed using Microsoft Excel. SPSS and content analysis. Other data from discussions were analysed through relative ranking. The socioeconomic activities with potential contribution to food security and income of adjacent communities in order of importance included crop cultivation, fishing, livestock grazing and collection of thatching grasses. Cultivation of paddy rice contributed significantly to household food security generating 65.4% of total household food crop production compared to other crops grown in drier areas adjacent to the swamp. Fishing played a substantial contribution to household food security through household consumption of 10% of fish caught. For household income, sales of paddy rice from the swamp contributed 59.6% while fish sales contributed 36% of the total annual household income. Multiplier activities emerging during fishing season facilitate income to a wider group of communities. On average, 56.2% of the population depend on the swamp for daily socio-economic activities associated with generation of household food and income. The Bahi swamp and related products play a significant role iniii enhancing local livelihoods for the adjacent communities. Planning for wise use of the swamp in respect of the dominant socioeconomic activities will likely improve its contribution to livelihoods.
Trend of trophy hunting in Tanzania: case study of six species in selous game reserve
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Malembeka, Francisca Jacob
Selous Game Reserve (SGR) is the most important destination for trophy hunting in Tanzania. Assessment of the trend of trophy hunting and its role in conservation was conducted for a 10-year period (2001-2010) using buffalo, elephant, greater kudu, impala, leopard and lion. The main objective was to assess ecological sustainability of trophy hunting and its role in wildlife conservation in Tanzania. Data were collected from secondary sources, including SGR trophy hunting database, trophy hunting sheets, Sectors’ annual reports and previous research records. Furthermore, a questionnaire survey to Sector Wardens and observations were used. SPSS and R-computer programs were used in analysis. Pearson correlation test was used to test correlation between parameters recorded. Trends of trophy qualities were tested using One Way ANOVA. Furthermore, a post hoc pair-wise test was employed to test which years’ records were different, if any. Results reveal that, at least 10 842 animals from the six study species were hunted during that period. Buffalo was the most hunted species followed by impala, together contributing 80% of hunts. Furthermore, buffalo was the most important for revenue (40.33%) followed by elephant (21.95%) and leopard (16.07%) though allocated quotas were not fully utilized. Animal populations have been decreasing. Though there were positive correlations between parameters for impala, buffalo and greater kudu, trophy quality for some species were decreasing. Perceptions from this study highlight that, despite the benefits from trophy hunting Sector Wardens doubted if quotas were sustainable, given the current conservation challenges. Poaching was the most mentioned challenge, amplified by encroachment and institutional failure to enforce the laws. The conclusion is that trophy hunting is important for revenue generation and conservation and recommends that it should be based on realistic quotas. Furthermore, the wildlife law and its regulations should be enforced, staff supervising the hunting be provided with quotas and empowered to enforce the law to prevent mal-practices.
Land use changes along wildlife corridors and their implications to conservation: a case of Saadani-Wami-Mbiki Wildlife corridor, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Kileo, Lawrence Ebenezeri
Wildlife corridors are facing conservation threats as a result of land use changes within and along them. The understanding of changes happening in the corridors over time is important for establishing the management baseline data. This study aimed at identifying land use changes along Saadani-Wami-Mbiki wildlife corridor and their implications to wildlife conservation. Specifically the study determined the rate of land cover changes in the corridor between 1975 and 2011 and assessed the associated land use practices towards corridor land cover change. Land sat imageries of 1975. 1995 and 2011 were used to assess the rate of vegetation cover changes as a result of various land use practices carried out in the corridor. Household survey and key informants interview methods were used to obtain socio-economic data which were analysed using SPSS while satellite imagery data were analysed using the ER.DAS IMAGINE 9.1 and ArcGIS 9.3 programmes. In the past 36 years (1975-2011). the cultivated land increased by 25%, settlement by 13%, open forest by 10% while closed forest and grassland decreased by 18% and 3% respectively. Shifting cultivation, over grazing, charcoal making and settlements were identified as major land use practices threatening the corridor. Basing on the results, it is recommended that, deliberate measures are needed to address about poverty of local communities around the corridor. Among the potentials include ecological and cultural tourism and beekeeping.
Factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures sustainability and socio-economic impacts among small holders farmers in Mbeya rural district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Seenga, Rehema Barnabas
Soil degradation attributed by erosion threatens agriculture production in many regions of Tanzania, consequently food insecurity and drawback poverty reduction efforts. Though various soil conservation measures (SCM) have been introduced and practiced by farmers, the extent of their adoption and sustainability are not clear. The objective of this study was to assess the factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures, their sustainability, and socio-economic impacts among small-holder farmers in Mbeya Rural District. Specifically, the study aimed at assessing, quantifying and documenting factors that influence adoption of SCM, farmers’ opinions on sustainability of SCM and the impacts of the existing SCM on crops yields. Shibolya and Usoha Muungano villages in Tembela ward were selected on the basis of SCM project receivers. A sample of 100 smallholder farmers was selected randomly. Primary data were collected through semi structured questionnaire. Secondary data were collected from various documents and sources. Descriptive analysis such as frequencies, cross tabulations, chi-square test were performed, t-test and linear regression were used for yield comparison of adopters and non-adopters and relationship establishment between adopters and socio-economic characteristics of farmers respectively. Results showed significant influence on personal factors (age and education) socio-economic factors (non- farm activities, farm size and fertilizer use), institutional factors (technical support, distance to market and training), biophysical factors (topography, types of soil erosion and soil fertility) among farmers. About 58% of opinions in regards to sustainablility of the SCM required regular soil management, 23% suggested more education on SCM. Adoption of SCM increased farmers’ maize and pyrethrum yield by an average of 27.8% and 26.8% respectively above non-adopters. Thus, SCM have resulted into substantial improvement in farm yields. Educating farmers regularly, consideration of farmers’ opinions and implementation of SCM are recommended.
Human-crocodile conflicts in areas adjacent to Lake Rukwa and Momba River, Momba District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Frank, Zakayo
Conflicts between human and crocodiles are increasing due to increase in human population. The conflicts have significant impacts on both human and crocodile populations. The study focused on assessment of human-crocodile conflicts in areas adjacent to Lake Rukwa and Momba River, Momba District, Mbeya Region Tanzania, for the period of 2003 to 2012. Cross-sectional research design and purposive sampling of villages were used in data collection. A total of 120 households were randomly sampled from four villages of Kamsamba, Senga, Muuyu and Samang’ombe. Data were collected using direct observation, structured interviews, focus group discussions and key informants interview. Simple descriptive statistics, cross tabulations and Chi-square test were used to analyze data. The causes of human-crocodile conflicts identified include: - fishing, crossing rivers, water for domestic use, and bathing/swimming. The main crocodile damage reported were:- killing of people, livestock depredation, injury/deformity to people, damages on fishing nets and crocodiles were blamed to cause threats to people’s life. During the period of 2003 to 2012, a total of 32 people were killed and 19 were injured by crocodiles. On the same period, crocodiles were reported to have killed 52 cattle, 10 dogs and 23 goats. It was found that most crocodile attacks occurred during the wet season from the period of January to March. Overall, many crocodiles attacks on people occurred while they were fishing or crossing rivers. The methods used in solving human-crocodile conflicts involved killing harmful crocodiles, avoiding going near the lake/rivers, digging water wells and providing education to communities on ways of avoiding crocodiles. The study recommends the supply of clean water to villagers of Kamsamba, Senga, Muuyu and Samang’ombe, and bridges to be constructed across rivers where most people pass when going to either side of the rivers.
Epidemiology of Bovine tuberculosis in cattle and selected wild animals in the interface of Katavi Rukwa ecosystem, Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture., 2015) Makondo, Zachariah Ephraim
A study on epidemiology bovine tuberculosis (BTB) in wildlife-livestock interface was undertaken in Katavi-Rukwa Ecosystem (KRE). The objective of the study was to generate epidemiology data of BTB in KRE interface. This study aimed to isolate members of the mycobacteria tuberculosis complex (MTC), determine the prevalence of the disease as well as evaluating Bovigam® and Stat Pak® serological diagnostic test. In year 2010 to 2012, 789 cattle were examined by single comparative intradermal tuberculin test (SCITT) and 328 livestock tissues were cultured. One hundred and seventy eight wild animals were also sampled; among these, 119 tissue samples from buffalo, lion, leopard and hartebeest were sampled opportunistically during professional hunting and game cropping operations in the protected areas. Out of 789 cattle tested, SCITT results indicated prevalence of 4.6 % [(95% confidence interval CI, 3.4-5.9)] and 10.7% [(95% CI, 7.8-11.9)] at ≥4 mm and >2 mm cut off, respectively. The prevalence was significantly affected by sex (female 5%, χ2= 56.4, p=0.03) and age (>2 years 5.8%, p=0.017). Typical tuberculous lesions were detected in 80% of tuberculosis reactor cattle tested from slaughter houses; among these, four isolates were MTC and were further genetically classified. Three isolates were identified as M. bovis strains and one isolate was M. tuberculosis. M. bovis isolates were grouped into three clusters of strains, and M. tuberculosis isolate was typified as East African Indian sub lineage (SIT 48, EAI1-SOM). Three clusters of M. bovis strains were identified as SB0133 and SB1467 reported elsewhere in the world while a new spoligotype pattern was identified and reported for the first time referenced as SB2191 in M. bovis spoligotype database. Non tuberculous mycobacteria were detected in 25.9% and 12.6% of livestock and wildlife tissue cultures, respectively suggesting transmission in area. Bovigam was in good agreement with SCITT (p=0.001) in diagnosis of disease. It is recommended to government authority to use multisectoral, one health disease control strategy, in order to prevent the infected livestock to serve as a source of infection to wild animals or the other way around in the interface. Planning for BTB sensitization during disease control implementation is equally important.
Communities and conservation in West Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: participation, costs and benefits Lokalsanilimn og naturvern i Vest-Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: Deltakelse, kostnadcrog nyttc
(Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2015) Mariki Sayuni Bildad
This thesis contributes to the current debate on how to balance conservation and development objectives. The extent of land under protection globally has increased enormously over the last 30 years, and there are still plans to expand the current protected areas (P/Xs) and create new ones. Their establishment is associated with impacts on local communities who live in the proximity of such areas. Different actors have proposed local participation and benefit sharing for people affected by these conservation initiatives. Despite their implementation over three decades, the social, economic, and political impacts of establishing and maintaining PAs remain debatable. It is in this context that this study was conducted in the I'nduimet Wildlife Management Area (WMA). the Kilimanjaro National Park, and the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation in Tanzania. I he specific research questions of the study are: What are the social and economic impacts of the expansion and establishment of conservation areas on local people in West Kilimanjaro; and how are the impacts distributed along gender lines? ii. iii. How are the conservation benefits shared with local communities in West Kilimanjaro? How do the conservation benefits and costs alTect local peoples* attitudes towards and perceptions of conservation? iv. What are the factors that drive human-wildlife conflicts? Data were collected using qualitative methods through the combination of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, informal interviews, and participant observation. Secondary data in the form of written sources on the study area were used in addition to the primary data gathered. The research results are presented in four separate but interrelated papers. Paper I investigates the gendered impacts of the creation of the Enduimet WMA and expansion of the Kilimanjaro National Park during recent years. The results of Paper 1 indicate that the establishment of these PAs has caused local people to lose rights to land and resources, harassment by PA staff, and increased conservation costs. The costs were found to be distributed along gender lines. However, women are affected more than men, due to inequality in the division of labour and resources at household level. Furthermore, relatively wealthy men and women suffer less compared to their poor counterparts because they are capable of buy ing natural resources such as fodder and firewood, an option which is less available to the poor. Furthermore, women in female headed households suffer more, compared to women in male-headed households, because they lack sufficient labour power for collecting natural resources and thus spend more time and energy in doing so. In addition, some are poor hence they lack the money to purchase these resources, while others are of old age and do not have relatives willing to help. Collecting natural resources forces poor women to spend more time and labour, which affects their health and restricts their time for participating in economic activ ities. Paper II explores the local benefits and transparency concerning the collection and distribution of tourism revenues from the Enduimet WMA. The results of Paper II show that the benefits channelled to local people who bear the costs of conservation are modest, and the system lacks transparency. The Enduimet Community-Based Organisation is entitled to receive 65 % of non consumptive tourism revenues accrued from the WMA. In practice, it receives less than 65 % after the revenues collected have passed through the non-transparent central government system. In 2011 each village received about 3.6 % of the tourism fees, and altogether the member villages received 32.5 %. When taking into account the uncompensated costs that some villagers bear in terms of increased crop damage, livestock loss, and loss of human life caused by increasing wildlife populations, the practice docs not match the ‘win-win’ discourse, that the Enduimet WMA will secure a sustainable source of income for local communities. Paper III compares the Kilimanjaro National Park and the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation in terms of local participation and benefit sharing, and how these alTcct relations between local communities and the two areas. The results of Paper III show that the Kilimanjaro National Park cams about 17 million USD per year, but from the inception of the park outreach programme in 1994 to 2011 (17 years), the park has spent only about 1.6 million USD to support 39 out of 90 neighbouring villages. Only one village among the three studied was supported by the park in 2002/03, in the form of the constniction of a water intake and storage tank worth 13,571 USD. The headquarters claim that they offer 7.5 % of the park's operational budget to neighbouring villages, but in practice, it is much less. Revenue sharing in the park is affected by bureaucratic procedures hampering applications for community projects, political influence, lack of transparency, mismanagement, and misuse of funds by national parks headquarters. It was found that some income was used to support parks (hat generate insufficient income. In addition, there is generally a lack of communication between the park and villagers. Villagers feel resentment towards the park that leads them to withdraw park resources illegally. They referred to the park stall'as ‘enemies' who do not care about their livelihoods. On the contrary, the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation has had a positive impact on neighbouring villages. Local communities benefit through the legal collection of forest products, farming opportunities, logging businesses for registered customers, and casual labour opportunities. Income from casual labour and agriculture serves as a source of income for them and their families. Nevertheless, casual labourers are paid too little (2.5 USD/day) and the process of allocating farming plots is affected by favouritism. The differences observed between the two areas are related to sectoral legal reforms in the 1990s to accommodate locally-based and decentralised approaches to natural resources management following the economic crisis of the late 1970s to the early 1980s. and the resulting declining capacity of government agencies. Based on inspiration drawn from the field of political ecology. Paper IV applies ‘webs of relation' approach to unwind inter-related factors behind cases of elephant killings in West Kilimanjaro. In recent years, there has been a considerable increase in elephant killings in Africa, for ivory'. I lowever, the ivory market is not the only reason why elephants are killed illegally. The results of Paper IV show that resistance to conservation is a reason behind elephant killings in this case, following appropriations of large tracts of land for conservation by external actors without the participation of local people. Local people suffer costs such as crop raiding, property damage, livestock deaths, and a threat to their own lives as they try to sustain a living on the remaining land that lies between conservation areas. In addition, they lack government support in chasing wildlife away from their fields, and they are not compensated for w ildlife damages. They are denied access to natural resources in the PAs. they are ill treated when found in the PAs. and they receive little or no benefits from conservation. Moreover, they lack land security, as there are more proposals from conservationists to create new conservation areas. This leaves people with an increased feeling of being marginalised and disempowered, with limited possibilities of influencing the situation through democratic means. Thus, local people resist conservation by killing wildlife. All areas studied (Enduimet WMA. Kilimanjaro National Park, and West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation) share a centralised structure in terms of decision making on the management of natural resources and benefit sharing. Local people are not able to participate in decision making in the management of the areas, and it is difficult for communities to influence or challenge the way the structure operates. In Enduimet. the WMA was proposed as community-run conservation area. In practice, the communities do not have the power to collect revenues, decide on shares, or to verify whether they receive the income they are entitled to receive. The central government collects the revenues and channels the percentage to local people. The Kilimanjaro National Park was found to involve local people only when there is a fire outbreak; thus local people claimed to be used as ‘tools’. The park management system docs not allow space lor local people’s opinions. Most of the collected revenues are retained by the national parks headquarters and local people do not have any power or influence over the revenues. In practice, the park operates under a strict “fences and fines’ or 'fortress conservation’ strategy. In the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation, local people do not have any power or share of the revenues collected from the sale of logs and poles, apart from payment received from casual labour. The income from logs sold is remitted to the central government. In all three areas, participation is used as ‘means’ to improve environmental conservation and a way to accrue more revenue for the government.
Population status and genetic characteristics of forest specialist and generalist birds in the Saadani-Pangani ecosystem, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016) Modest, R. B.
The Saadani-Pangani ecosystem form part of the east Africa coastal forests ― and these forests, sitting along the coast of eastern Africa appears as small dotted patches but their biodiversity value is remarkably high. For example, they host about 4,050 species of vascular plants with 43% of them being endemic. The forests are either protected in forest reserves, or occurs in lands under private ownership. However, these forests have traditionally been impaired by suppression from human deleterious effects including forest clearing for subsistence agriculture and extensive livestock grazing. These disturbances cause habitat fragmentation which influence birds, including restricting dispersal of forest specialist species, for example. Therefore, this research was designed to assess the population status and genetic characteristics of forest dependant birds within fragmented forests in the Saadani-Pangani ecosystem, Tanzania. Two species, a forest specialist and a forest generalist were used as models. Specifically the research intended to: establish occurrence and population density; determine habitat preference; examine gene flow; and determine the effects of forest patch size and isolation on occurrence and abundance of the study species. Various techniques were used to collect data for achieving the objectives including line transects survey, mist netting, and laboratory analysis of molecular data to determine genetic makeup of individuals. Moreover, a number of methodologies were opted to analyse the data, including habitat modelling in Presence Program, density estimation using Distance Program, and forest patch size analysis using Quantum GIS software. Results showed that, the occurrence expressed as occupancy probability, and population density of the forest specialist species were higher in undisturbed habitat. On the other hand, the trend in occupancy probability, population density, and habitat preference of the forest generalist species opposed that of the forest specialist one. However, the genetic characteristics and gene flow of the forest specialist species did not differ among forest fragments. The findings under this research has provided useful information on statutes of forest specialist and generalist birds demonstrating their chance of persistence within fragmented habitat in the study system.
Patterns of temporal and spatial variations of a forest mammal community in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016) Martin, Emanuel Henry
In tropical forests, mammals represent particularly rich communities of species with a variety of trophic groups and wide range of life history traits. This diversity plays a significant role in the functioning of the ecosystems. Yet, tropical forest mammals are negatively affected by a number of factors caused by both natural and anthropogenic activities. However, limited and often not-consistent information is available on the status or trends of mammal communities in tropical forests. For that reason, this study employed systematic camera trapping during 2009 – 2014 to determine the temporal and spatial variations of forest mammal communities. The study was conducted in Mwanihana forest within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, south-central Tanzania, an outstanding area in Africa for biological richness and endemism, particularly the mammals. Camera trapping data were collected together with field- and remote sensing-based environmental and human disturbance variables considered influential of species’ occurrence. State-ofthe art occupancy analytical framework was used to investigate the relationships between species abundance and environmental covariates, including seasonal variations. Occupancy requires repeated temporal replications to resolve the ambiguity between species absence and non-detection when species are unobserved at sample locations. Such analysis was complemented by more classic, multiple regression analysis such as Generalized Linear Models used to analyze effects of covariates on a raw index of abundance, the camera trapping rate (RAI). Results show that a minimum of 32 mammal species are present in the target forest, and the species-specific occupancy modelling revealed novel ecological knowledge for the 11 most detected species, highlighting patterns such as ‘montane forest dwellers’, e.g. the endemic Sanje mangabey (Cercocebus sanjei), and ‘lowland forest dwellers’, e.g. suni antelope (Nesotragus moschatus). Furthermore, the habitat associations in relation with the raw index of abundance was found to be positively correlated with distance to the park border for IUCN-Endangered Abbott’s duiker (Cephalophus spadix), indicating preference for interior forest habitat and avoidance of disturbance while that of Eastern Arc-endemic Lowe’s servaline genet (Genetta servalina lowei) was positively correlated with the diversity of large trees but negatively correlated with visibility and herbaceous cover, indicating preference for mature forest habitat. As for the analysis of seasonal variation (as especially related to rainfall), only bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) showed a significant decrease in detectability from dry to wet season. Analysis of the variation of relative abundance with space and time revealed that anthropogenic activity such as firewood collection had a negative impact, by lowering relative species’ abundance for a number of species such as Harvey’s duiker (Cephalophus harveyi). Moreover, the relative abundance of the pooled species most targeted by poaching increased with decreased poaching activities over time. Overall this study shows that the analysis of camera trap data deployed using systematic and standardized protocols - and with account for imperfect detection - can provide robust ecological assessments of mammal communities. It further shows how these assessments can determine the various drivers of change of mammals’ occurrence (both natural and anthropogenic), hence providing insights that are of clear potential relevance to mammals’ conservation management.
Population ecology of Beamys hindei and Rhynchocyon petersi in selected coastal forests of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016) Sabuni, Christopher Andrew
This thesis is prepared according to ''Publishable manuscripts" format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. The study on the population ecology vis-a-vis: distribution. population dynamics, space use and behavior, genetic diversity and structure of Beamys hindei and Rhynchocyon petersi was conducted from 2010 lo 2014 in selected coastal Ibrests (Kwamsisi, Gendagenda, Madeie, Mbulizaga, Askari and Zaraninge) within and around Saadani National Park, Tanzania. Distribution of B. hindei was assessed using Sherman traps while for R. petersi camera traps were used. Capture mark recapture was used for population dynamics of B. hindei in Zaraninge forest. Radio telemetry together with camera traps was used to determine home range and activity patterns for R. petersi in Zaraninge forest. Standard genetic methods were used for development of microsatellites and determining genetic diversity and structure of R. petersi in the Zaraninge, Mbulizaga, Askari and Gendagenda. Results on distribution indicate R. petersi was found in all forests while B. hindei was found in some forest and absent in some other forests. Population fluctuation, demographic patterns of B. hindei in Zaraninge forest, showed a mean survival rate of 0.72 (range 0.65-078) with a recruitment of 1 animal/28 days and a litter size of 2.8 indicating a low abundance with stable population. The average home range of R. petersi from radio telemetry was 2.6 ha. Activity pattern differed between seasons with more activity observed on dry season (F =9.75, df 1, 28, p 0.004. Eight polymorphic microsatellites using next generation sequencing technology based on eighteen R. petersi were genotyped. Developed eight microsalellites were used to determine diversity and structure of R. petersi. Results indicate extant R. petersi have descended from a single population of high effective size (Ne) with no forest distinctive signal. In contrast, B. hindei was more genetically structured. It recommends further investigation if the 'population robustness’ of R. petersi in the fragmented coastal forest applies to other parts of its range, notably in the East Arc Mountain forests. Conservation status of R. petersi should remain as vulnerable while B. hindei should be reviewed to vulnerable. Conservation program are required lo sate guard these species
Attitude and perception of tourists towards wildlife-based tourism in Tanzania: a case study of the northern tourist circuit
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Kahangwa, P. N.
The tourism industry has become a fast growing economic sector in Tanzania with high foreign earnings. This is a result of the vast natural resources that Tanzania is endowed with. The tourists arriving in Tanzania have different attitudes and perceptions of the destination. Understanding these attitudes and perceptions is essential to the development of the tourism industry. This study therefore, research on the attitude and perception of tourists on wildlife tourism as well as their preference on wildlife attractions. Survey questionnaires were used to collect data from 300 tourists visiting Lake Manyara National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Data was analysed using SPSS version 20. Results show that overall; tourists have a positive attitude and perception towards wildlife tourism in Tanzania. However, there are some few factors which the tourists had a negative attitude and perception with, such as overcrowding, littering, feeding of wild animals, going off-road, inadequate tourists’ facilities and infrastructures. These factors must be addressed so as to promote the vast growth of the tourism industry which has a significant contribution to the economic development of the country.
Assessment of bmus awareness on sardine processing and marketing in lake Victoria, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Moshiro, E.
This study was implemented to generate information on assessing BMUs awareness on sardine processing and marketing on Lake Victoria Tanzania. Specifically, the study intended to; identify the roles BMUs are currently performing in line with sardine processing practices with the proposed BMUs guidelines and generating information to carry out the training need assessment for the studied BMUs. The study was conducted in Tanzania part of the lake. A total of 11 BMUs participated, drawn from three districts of Mwanza city. Data was collected using three main methods; A questionnaire-based survey involving a total of 155 respondents, Key informant interviews (n = 3) was done to to cover the information from the Focus Group Discussions, and also FGD (n = 77) with different groups at each site. After fieldwork data was entered in spreadsheets (Excel and SPSS) and analyzed. Multiple response analysis was used to determine the relationship between sardine handling, processing and training need within BMUs. BMUs are aware of various interventions done for sustainable fishery resource utilization. Though efforts to improve the value of sardines have been shown but BMUs were observed with challenges such as, lack of government and financial support, conflict of interest, poor record keeping, lack of regular trainings and proper market. In those circumstances BMUs are not sustainable, although they are feasible institutions. There is a need to build capacity through provision of equipments, access to financial resources, incentives to BMUs leaders, relevant training skills and awareness creation for BMUs to be feasible and sustainable.

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