Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Assessment of human-elephant conflicts in areas adjacent to grumeti-Ikorongo game reserves, Northern Tanzania
(Sokoine Univeesity of Agriculture, 2011) MALUGU, Lucas Thomas
Twelve villages adjacent to the Grumeti-Ikorongo Game Reserves (GIGRs) and part of the Serengeti National Park (SENAPA) in Bunda and Serengeti districts were selected to assess human elephant conflicts (HEC) from 2006 - 2009. The study aimed to identify the type of conflicts, determine the magnitude, spatial and temporal patterns of HEC incidences, and the effectiveness of the mitigation methods applied. Arc GIS (9.3v) was used to analyze spatial data. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to analyze the magnitude, temporal patterns, type of conflicts and the effectiveness of the mitigation methods. Regression analysis was carried out to illustrate crop raiding based on distance of villages from the protected area boundaries. Results showed that elephant crop damage constituted about 89% of all conflicts while human, elephant and livestock kill including damage of water structures and human interference accounted for 11%. Temporal trends indicated two peaks of elephant crop damage incidences, the highest peak started from April to June and the lowest from September to October. The spatial distribution of crop raiding incidences showed a series of clumped conflict zones confined in a narrow band of villages adjacent to the GIGRs and SENAPA boundaries. The magnitudes of crop damages were not similar across the villages as they were influenced by distance between the centre of the villages and the protected areas boundaries (r = - 0.84, p < 0.001). The overall level of crop damages was of medium category (44%). About 45% of the farmers used ineffective traditional methods to deter elephants while 48% of them did not deploy any method and 7% used a chilli method that showed effective deterrent results. The study recommended for upscalling the chilli method in order to reduce HEC to tolerable level.
Analysis of "ngitiri" as a traditional silvopastoral technology among the agropastoralists of Meatu, Shinyanga, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1999) Kamwenda, Gerald Jones
A diagnostic survey was conducted in Meatu district agropastoral land use system, to iteratively refine the "ngitiri" (a traditional fodder reserve under silvopasture system) among the agropastoralists of Shinyanga, Tanzania. The study was based on a descriptive diagnosis and design (an ICRAF methodology), to identify the components, structure, management and the technological specifications of the "ngitiri". The diagnostic survey was complemented with a blend of qualitative land evaluation and descriptive socio-economic and ecological evaluation of the silvopasture land use. The qualitative land evaluation, was conducted based on the four mapping units of vegetation strata, established through photo interpretation of current satellite imagery, vegetation maps and ground truth surveys (DROP, 1997). Out of the four strata, two were combined to form three effective sampling strata for diagnostic survey. Sixty household individuals were purposefully selected, (twenty from each of the three effective sampling strata), among individuals practising "ngitiri" system, whereas three representative “ngitiri” were purposefully selected from the vegetation cover types of the representative effective sampling strata. The data were collected using the ICRAF Diagnostic and Design methodology and the FAO Guideline for Land Evaluation. Twenty multidisciplinary individual staff, involved in land husbandry were purposefully selected for triangulation, from a number of departments in the districts. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) programme, content structural analysis and categorisation of social information, together with suitability rating, were used in data analysis. The social survey and resource assessment methods of triangulation of information, was employed in content structural analysis of social information. The study identified the specification for “ngitiri”, comprising of; 17 commonly grazed fodder grasses, 25 commonly browsed herbs and forbes, and 25 browsable tree species. The district suitability rating for extensive grazing and community forestry were established, together with extension and research, needed for sustainable ecological land use under "ngitiri" silvopasture practice. Among the tree species found in "ngitiri" fodder reserves, 88% had an environmental role to play in the agropastoral ecosystem. Among the 60 informants interviewed, 95% indicated the potential of "ngitiri" to mitigate dry season fodder shortage, and supported the use of "ngitiri" to supply dry season fodder, while 85% supported "ngitiri" to have potential for mitigating environmental degradation. Among the 20 purposively selected professional staff, all indicated "ngitiri" to have potential for production and supply of dry season fodder, and mitigating environmental degradation, when properly used and managed. The survey identified and prioritised overgrazing, drought, termite attack, seedling mortality, lack of title deeds, encroachment, tsetse flies, water scarcity, tick borne diseases, lack of veterinary services, cattle rustling and land scarcity as the major problems affecting silvopasture land use. The study establishes the gaps for sustainable "ngitiri" management, improvement and potential silvopasture suitability rating. Furthermore, the study points some basic needs to brigde the gaps in extension, research and policy reforms, with respective recommendations.
Population ecology and distribution pattern of honey bee plants in Aghondi National Bee Reserve Central, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Pikoloti Wilson Edward
The contribution of bee plants in the form of floral rewards for beekeeping development depends on plant species diversity, distribution, flowering phenology, and honey bee visitations. Unfortunately, such information is still lacking for many potentially good sites for honey production. Honey bee plants are being threatened by unsustainable human development activities, and thwart rural development initiatives that depend on honey production as an additional income activity. To address this information gap and to improve honey productivity, this study provides a better understanding of honey bee plants within the Aghondi National Bee Reserve in Central Tanzania. Specifically, the study aimed to address two primary research questions related to respective objectives: what is the diversity, density, and distribution status of honey bee plants? This objective involved assessing honey bee plant diversity, density, and distribution of honey bee plants and (ii) when is the flowering period of honey bee plants and what honey bee visitation patterns of key honey bee plants? This objective was to determine flowering phenology and honey bee visitation rates on selected honey bee plants. Data collection utilized different methods and sampling approaches. For the first objective, a systematic sampling design was used to sample vegetation in 85 square plots in three vegetation types. For the third and fourth objectives, five honey bee plants were selected based on the abundance in three vegetation types and monitored to profile their flowering and phenology, and 34 plants were studied for honey bee visitation rate for 20 weeks. For the first and second objectives, a total of 79 honey bee plant species were recorded, belonging to 28 families and 5 genera. The distribution of species was relatively even, resulting in the identification of three distinct plant communities. Furthermore, the study indicated that the plant density was generally higher for the shrubs, notably Vepris nobilis than for trees and climbers. Moreover, for the second objective, honey bee plants exhibit continuous flower openings throughout the day, with a notably higher number of flowers opening during the morning (P= 0.0013). The flowering distribution period was longer, lasting for one two to three months with; Julbernadia globiflora going for 88 days, Combretum obovatum for 72 days, Combretum celastroides for 62 days, Pseudoprosopis fischeri for 32 days, Baphia massaiensis for 53 days. Furthermore, the results revealed that the highest mean number of visits of honey bees was observed in Albizia petersiana (115± 36) and Commiphora mollis (99±30) while the lowest was observed in Pseudoprosopis fischeri (0.818±1.3) and Dichrostachys cinerea (0.0818±0.75). The honey bee visitation rate increased with floral rewards (r 2 = 0.128) and the number of flowers (r2 = 0.157). In addition, temperature (r2 = 0.001) and humidity (r2 = 0.004) had no significant effect (P> 0.005) on the honey bee visitation rate for the selected plants. These results suggest that the reserve contributes substantially to the honey bee forages which are a prerequisite for honey bee productivity and that the bee foraging is modulated by both biophysical and environmental factors. This information is useful for improving honey production strategies such as establishing many apiaries and conserving honey bee plants in Tanzania and elsewhere where bee honey production is a growing priority to develop a beekeeping calendar to maximize honey production within the reserve.
Ecology of small mammals and their ectoparasites in mount Meru, Tanzania: insights for biodiversity conservation
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Gebrezgiher, Genet Berhe
This Thesis has been prepared in accordance with the Publishable Manuscripts format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. The study on the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals over time, their demographic characteristics, and their associations with arthropod ectoparasites was conducted between 2021 and 2022 at different elevations and habitats in Tanzania's second- highest mountain, Mount Meru. Mount Meru is one of the biodiversity hotspots in eastern Africa, hosting high level of species richness and endemism, and providing important ecosystem services. However, relatively, little is known about the ecology of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites. Similarly, little is known about the effects of environmental factors on the small mammal distribution, which potentially extending to the parasites they host. Tanzania is among the handful of countries in Africa where active foci of deadly zoonotic diseases that can be transmitted by small mammals and their ectoparasite vectors have been persistent. Moreover, Mount Meru is home for endemic and threatened species that are documented on the IUCN Red List. However, there is currently no available information regarding the possible role of arthropod ectoparasites of small mammals in the transmission of zoonotic disease. The over all goal of the study was to understand the ecological dynamics and distribution patterns of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites across different elevations of Mount Meru in Tanzania. The study aimed at addressing three key specific objectives: i) Assesing a decade-long change in the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals on Mount Meru; ii) determining the breeding and demographic aspects of montemys delectorum, an east african endemic rodent in mount Meru; iii) Examining arthropod ectoparasites of two rodent species occurring in varied elevations on Tanzania’s second highest mountain. To address the first objective, the small mammals were surveyed from February to November 2021 at six elevations between 1500 m and 3650 m using Sherman and Havahart traps. The results show that two shrew and thirteen rodent species were recorded, including Crocidura newmarki and Lophuromys verhageni, which are endemic to the study area. Species richness was highest at mid-altitudes, in line with the general patterns globally, though less pronounced in Africa. The species Arvicanthis niloticus, Mastomys natalensis, Lemniscomys striatus, Dasymys incomtus, and Cricetomys ansorgei were not documented in 2009 but have been recorded in 2021. Upward shifts in species’ ranges were observed between 2009 and 2021, suggesting the influence of climate change on the small mammal community. It is important to note that the rodent species mentioned in Chapter 2 as Praomys species have been identified as Montemys delectorum after genetic identification and recent taxonomic revisions. For the second objective, a Capture – mark – release studies were undertaken in dense and open patchy forests in four 70 m X 70 m grids from February 2021 to June 2022. The findings revealed that the species exhibited bimodal patterns of breeding seasonality, characterized by a low rate occurring during the short interval between December and February and a pronounced rate taking place from May to July. The population of Montemys delectorum was unstable in the different forest types. There was a larger population in the patchy open forest (F = 8.1; df = 1; p = 0.0001) than in dense forest, suggesting its importance as a refuge for the species. To achieve the third objective, trapping of the two most dominant rodent species of the study area, Montemys delectorum and Rhabdomys dilectus, from five elevations (1500 to 3500 m), were examined for arthropod ectoparasite infestations. The results revealed that Ctenophthalmus calceatus cabirus, Dinopsyllus ellobius, Varroa rindereri, and Xenopsylla cheopis were recovered from the rodents. This study demonstrates that the elevational distribution of arthropod ectoparasites is influenced by host sex, host species, and environmental temperature. With rising altitude, parasite prevalence and abundance decrease, indicating that colder environmental conditions at higher altitudes inhibit parasite reproduction and development. This indicates conservation efforts should focus on higher altitudes. Moreover, the rodents and ectoparasites reported in this study have been identified as possible vectors of medical and veterinary diseases in different parts of Africa, including Tanzania. It is crucial to take precautions in order to effectively reduce the risk of parasitic infection, which can pose an additional threat to both the endemic and threatened species listed on the IUCN Red List as well as the overall biodiversity of the study area. Furthermore, molecular results from this study reported a previously unidentified mite species within the Mesostigmata taxonomic group that had previously been recognized exclusively as a parasite of honeybees. Further research efforts may provide insights into the significance of this particular species of mite, Varroa rindereri. Generally, while there remains much to be learned, this particular study establishes the foundation for future initiatives in wildlife disease surveillance and biodiversity conservation management. In abroader sense, the shift in the distribution of small mammals and their ectoparasites on Mount Meru is a microcosm of the broader challenges facing mountain ecosystems worldwide. These insights go beyond the immediate context of Mount Meru and suggest that we need to consider the long-term consequences of environmental dynamics on biodiversity conservation. As these complexities continue to shape mountain landscapes, their impact is not limited to species interactions but also touches the field of human well-being. The conservation of biodiversity is intrinsically linked to our own well- being, as biodiversity and human societies are intricately intertwined. Therefore, the findings of this research serve as an urgent reminder for effective conservation action.
Rodent borne pathogens infecting mastomys natalensis in selected areas of Morogoro and Iringa, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Thomas, Claus Augustino
The study on the rodent borne pathogens infecting Mastomys natalensis in selected sites of Morogoro and Iringa was conducted between January, 2021 and July, 2022. Various studies have shown that, human and animal diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, and parasites carried by rodents are on the increase, however, relatively, little is known of the prevalence and dynamics of infections by Trichuris spp. Leptospira spp. Bartonella spp. and other helminths in rodents and their ectoparasites. Similarly, little is known on the effectiveness of broad spectrum anthelminthics on gastrointestinal parasites of rodents. In this study, the prevalence and seasonal variation of Trichuris worm infection in rodents was investigated. In addition, molecular detection of Leptospira spp. and Bartonella spp. in M. natalensis and its ectoparasites was studied. Furthermore, the effect of Ivermectin® against gastrointestinal helminths was determined. These studies were carried out between January 2021 and July 2022. The study aimed at addressing three key specific objectives; i) Determining prevalence and seasonal variation of Trichuris worms infection in M. natalensis in Morogoro and Iringa regions ii) Molecular detection of Leptospira spp. and Bartonella spp. in M. natalensis and its ectoparasites in Morogoro iii) Determining the effect of Ivermectin® on Intestinal helminths in the multimmate mouse (M. natalensis). The study sites were in Morogoro and Iringa regions. In Morogoro region, the studies were carried out in Choza, Kiroka and in an enclosed area (Fence) close to Sokoine University of Agriculture main campus. For Iringa region, Isimani and Idodi villages were selected. Mastomys natalensis was used throughout the study as the model rodent species because it is known to carry a number of athogens. Also, it is the most abundant, dominant and most studied species of the small mammals in Tanzania. To address the first specific objective, the study was conducted between January and November, 2021 in Morogoro and Iringa regions. These regions differ significantly in their eco-climatic conditions. Removal trapping was conducted using Sherman® live traps in rainy and dry seasons. Gastrointestinal tracts of captured rodents were screened for the presence of Trichuris worms and identified using morphological keys. The effect of geographical region, season and sex of the rodents on Trichuris worm infections were tested using a generalized linear model with binomial function. Data were analyzed using R Statistical Software 4.1.3 at a p- value of 0.05. For the second objective, M. natalensis were captured live in fallow habitats using Sherman® traps and anesthetized using halothane. Blood samples were obtained from the retroorbital sinus and ectoparasites were removed from the fur using a hard brush and preserved in 70% ethanol. Real Time – qPCR followed by Sanger sequencing was used to detect Leptospira spp. and Bartonella spp. from the blood and ectoparasites respectively. Confidence intervals (95% CI) for the prevalence of Bartonella spp. and Leptospira spp. in M. natalensis was determined at the level of alpha of 0.05. The statistical difference in Bartonella spp. infection in mites from males and females M. natalensis was determined using a two-tailed student’s t-test. For the third objective, rodents were live captured from the open field as well as free ranging rodents from “Fence”. The animals were marked, caged individually and supplied with feed and water ad libitum. A total of 45 animals were released into each of two enclosed plots (treatment and control groups). The treatment group received a single dose of an aqueous suspension of Ivermectin® (0.0007ml/l), while the control group was left untreated. The animals from both plots were captured biweekly and screened for helminths eggs over a period of eight weeks. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the mean variation of gastrointestinal helminths burden before and after treatment with Ivermectin®. The following were the results of these studies. i) A total of 200 M. natalensis were studied from each of the two regions, consisting of 100 animals per season. For Morogoro, the overall prevalence of Trichuris worms in M. natalensis was 36% (n=72), of which 42/200 and 30/200 were for the rainy and dry seasons respectively. For Iringa, the overall prevalence was 65% (n=130), of which 80/200 and 50/200 were for the rainy and dry seasons respectively. Trichuris worm infection was significantly higher during the rainy season in Iringa than in Morogoro and no significant difference in infection was observed between males and females in either of the two regions or seasons. Other forms of helminths detected were Strongyloides spp., Capillaria spp., Hymenolepis spp. and eggs of a yet to be confirmed helminths, possibly an Anoplocephalid sp. ii) For the molecular studies, Leptospira spp. was demonstrated in one out of 100 M. natalensis while, for Bartonella spp., the prevalence of (14%) was recorded in mites with a higher proportion in adult males than in females. Upon Sanger sequencing, four positive samples showed a complete sequence of the ITS gene. Indicating that all samples belonged to Uncultured Bartonella. iii) With regard to the effect of Ivermectin® on intestinal helminths, there was no significant difference in Strongiloides spp., H. nana and Physaloptera spp. infection before and after treatment. However, a significant reduction of H. diminuta and Trichuris worms was observed in the treated animals. No significant increase in the number of worms recorded in the control group. The overall prevalence of helminths in M. natalensis was significantly higher in male than female rodents. To address the gaps identified from these studies, there is a need for improved surveillance of rodents borne diseases in the studied regions and elsewhere and to establish strategic control programs to reduce their adverse impact on health. This is important, considering that rodents and specifically M. natalensis is the most abundant rodent pest species in sub-Saharan Africa and maintenance host and carrier of diverse zoonotic pathogens. Further interventions to raise awareness of the role of commensal rodents and their ecto/endoparasites in disease transmission are recommended. Also, Ivermectin® is recommended for use in treatment against helminths. However, it is recommended to investigate the scope of its effectiveness in diverse helminths.
Community ecology of rodents in a natural and agricultural landscape- in Western Serengeti, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Rwebuga, Egidius James
Rodents are beneficial ecologically as they act as food for other organisims including humans. However, about 17% of rodent species are problematic since they transmit zoonotic diseases, damage properties and depredate crops. Various strategies have been designed worldwide to control them but have proven futile due to limited knowledge on the animals’ biology, behaviour and ecology. This knowledge is essential for preparing integrated rodent conservation and management strategies. Also, no one single strategy can effectively be used to manage rodents in every part of the world, hence rodent ecological studies in as many local areas as possible are needed. Therefore, two ecological studies were carried out to generate information that would contribute to the formulation of effective strategies. The first study aimed to determine: i) spatio-temporal community structure (species composition, age and sex structure), ii) spatio-temporal population dynamics and breeding patterns and iii) influence of ecological factors (vegetation attributes, soil characteristics and seasonality) on abundance of a dominant rodent species M.natalensis. The second study aimed at investigating the dietary patterns of the dominant rodent species. These are the first detailed ecological studies in our study area. The first study was conducted within Kijereshi Game Reserve and the surrounding Nyamikoma village in the western Serengeti using Capture- Mark-Recapture (CMR) technique from April 2020 to March 2022. Sherman live traps were used to trap rodents on a 3 consecutive night’s basis every month for twenty four months. Trapping was done in nine 70 x 70 m2 permanent grids in the wooded grassland habitat within Kijereshi Game Reserve, and in fallow land and maize crop fields within Nyamikoma village land. One year data collected from from 2020 April to March 2021 were used to investigate spatio-temporal community structure of rodents in the three habitats whereby 1,075 individuals were captured. They comprised eight 8 rodent species and one shrew species. Mastomys natalensis (76.6%) was the most whereas Acomys wilsoni (02%) occurred the least abundant species across habitats and the insectivorous animal was Crocidura cf. flavescens (11.1%). Species richness was highest in the wooded grassland and least in maize crop fields, probably due to mono-cultivation nature in the maize crop fields. Fallow land had a higher diversity (1.05) while maize fields had the lowest (0.35), suggesting presence of heterogeneity in fallow land habitats as compared to maize crop fields. A statistical difference in number of adults, subadults and juveniles was detected between habitats (F2, 102 = 3.09, P=0.05), and a marginally significant difference between seasons (F1, 102 = 3.743, p = 0.06). There were more Juveniles in the maize crop fields than in the wooded grassland habitat probably due to availability of food resources that favour their reproduction. On the other hand, there was a significant difference between numbers of females and males of M. natalensis captured across dry and wet seasons (F1, 64 = 8.311, p = 0.005) and the three habitats (F2, 64 = 6.9, p = 0.004). The study suggests that small scale comparisons of the community structures of small mammals between habitats can provide knowledge that is needed for conservation and control of small mammal species. A two year period data on population dynamics and breeding patterns of M.natalensis revealed that, its abundance varied significantly across habitats ( Chi-squared = 8.922, df = 2, p-value = 0.012) and between seasons (W = 982.5, p-value<0.001). Females bred continuously throughout all seasons and there was no significant difference in the number of actively breeding females across habitats (Chi-squared = 3.52, df = 2, p-value = 0.172) and between seasons (W = 584, p-value = 0.472) probably due to presence of seeds/grains especially in maize crop fields throughout the year. However, in most cases breeding started to increase immediately after long rains in March/April except in the wooded grassland where there was a lag. Numerically, the M. natalensis abundance was higher in maize crop fields as compared to other habitats, but densities dropped similarly in all habitats during wet season. Nevertheless, the reasons for this is not yet clear as substantial food resources are available especially in the maize crop fields resulting from maize crops harvest of the second cropping season. Although, analysis of data on several selected ecological correlates, indicated that the latter have influence on the abundance of M.natalensis. For example, its abundance was significantly higher during the dry season and in farmlands than in wet season and protected areas (χ2= 79.393, df = 2, p < 0.001). Also, the abundance significantly associated positively with farmlands (p = 0.023) and sandy- clay-loam soils (p = 0.007). Hence, control of the animals might be effected between the months of November and January when densities are low and farmers should maximize maize production during this period which falls in their minor cropping. Also, soil type issue should be taken into consideration during farm site selection. The second study was conducted in the same study site as the first one, to investigate on the dietary patterns of M.natelensis, whereby, kill traps (Victor kill trap (1.0 x 20.3 x 30.1 cm, Animal Trap Co., Lititz Pennal) baited with peanut butter mixed with maize bran/flour were used in three grids of 70 x 70 m2. About 111 captured specimens were dissected, their stomachs removed and labelled, then preserved in containers (20 ml, glass bottle, HiSupplier_.com) containing 70% ethanol. The analysis of stomach contents was carried out by evenly spreading each stomach contents in a Petridish and categorised using a binocular dissecting microscope under 25 x and 50 x magnification, into various food categories. Overall, vegetative plant materials (41%) andinvertebrates (39.1%) dominated. During the wet season, invertebrates dominated in the wooded grassland, followed by fallow land and maize crop fields. On the other hand, seeds/grains were more eaten in maize crop fields than in other habitat types. Also, in the dry season, vegetative plant materials dominated the animal’s diet in maize crop fields suggesting that this rodent is an opprtunistice feeder.
Ecological assessment of rodents and flea populations and disease awareness in plague foci, Mbulu District, Northern Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Kessy, Stella Thadeus
Plague, a rodent-borne disease caused by Yersinia pestis, continues to be a major public health concern in several African countries. Disease outbreaks are influenced by various factors, including rodent population dynamics, flea infestations, human behaviors and practices and environmental conditions. Conducting comprehensive studies addressing these factors particularly in plague endemic areas is crucial for understanding their involvenment in plague persistence and developing effective preventive and control measures. In this study, several methods were used to assess different factors associated with the continued existence of plague in the plague foci, Mbulu district, Tanzania. The study was conducted between November 2019 to November 2021. To assess rodent species richness, diversity, and community structure in relation to plague persistence in different habitats, seasons and localities, a removel trapping method was applied. Findings indicated that areas with plague persistent had higher rodent abundance and species richness than non-persistent areas. Nortably, species richness was lower in-house premises compared to other habitats. Also, the study revealed three rodent community structures that varied significantly between studied habitat types, suggesting interactions influenced by available resources in the particular habitats. The population dynamics of Mastomys natalensis and Lophuromys makundii were assessed using a Capture-Mark-Recapture method. Results showed that the abundance of M. natalensis was significantly higher in farms present in plague persistent than those present in non- plague persistent locality. The dry season showed a significant increase of abundance compared to the long rain season and the short rain season. Plague persistent had a significant increase in breeding females compared to non-plague persistent localities, while in the different habitats, farms showed a significant decrease in breeding females compared to forests. Also, dry season was associated with an increase in breeding females compared to the long rain season and the short rain season. Furthermore, the abundance of L. makundii and proportion of breeding females showed a significant increase in forest present in plague persistent than non-plague persistent localities. The abundance increased significantly during the dry season and long rain season compared to the short rain season. The breeding females significantly increased during the dry and the short rain season than the long rain season. For the assessment of flea infestation of rodents, fleas ectoparasites were collected by fur brushing the captured rodents. The study aimed to determine flea infestation prevalence, community structure, and variations between localities, habitats (farn and forest) and seasons. Flea abundance did not show significant differences between localities, habitats and seasons. However, prevalence of flea infestation was significantly positively associated with the plague persistent locality and the short rain season. Also, the study revealed two broad flea community structures based on farm and forest habitats. Fluctuations in flea abundance thoughout the sampling period and the influence of household behavior (such as mat and sleeping loft) on flea abundance within house were examined using a removal method and light trap. The study found seven flea species within houses with Ctenocephalides canis being the most abundant, followed by Pullex irritans and Ctenocephalides felis. The abundance was significantly higher in dry than long rain season. Houses with sleeping bed, mattress and loft had significantly higher flea abundance than houses with bed and mat alone. Also, households that shared livestock in one roof had significantly more fleas than non-shared households.
Population ecology of small mammals in Mount Rungwe nature forest reserve
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Richard, Upendo
Small mammals play significant ecological and economical role among many societies. Therefore, conducting ecological assessment of small mammals is crucial for maintaining functioning ecosystems and societal well being. The tropical mountains are characterised by diverse habitats, favourable environmental conditions, as well as abundant flora and fauna, including numerous endemic species. Among tropical mountains, Mount Rungwe Nature Forest Reserve (MRNFR) in southwestern Tanzania stands out as the second-highest mountain in the region, boasting its high diversity of flora and fauna, including several important IUCN endemic species such as Rungwecerbus kipunji, Cephalophus spadix and Galagoides sp. While there have been various studies on small mammals in Tanzania, the studies on mountainous small mammals remain limited, with most of them conducted in the northern part of the country and Eastern Arc mountains. This study aimed to understanding the ecology of small mammals in MRNFR which is situated at the intersection of the western, eastern and southern East Africa rift valleys. The study was conducted between 2020 and 2022 and involved data collection along an altitudinal gradient encompassing low-elevation, mid-elevation, and high-elevation with habitats low and mid montane forests, montane bamboo forests, montane bushland and montane grassland. Different methodologies were employed based on the stated specific objectives. The total of 300 Shearman traps, 60 pitfall traps, 132 snap traps and 18 Havahart traps were used. To determine the species composition, a combination of Sherman traps, pitfalls and Havahart traps was used along transects whereby five trapping nights were conducted at each elevation. Grids measuring 70 m X 70 m were established at each elevation to examine the influence of microhabitat parameters on small mammal abundance. Each grid contained 49 Sherman traps which were set over three consecutive nights. Microhabitat parameters, including vegetation and soil characteristics were collected using nested quadrant approach and soil core method. The data on population dynamics were obtained from permanent grids established over three consecutive days within a 24- month period at each elevation. For the purpose of diet analysis, the snap traps were placed in four transect lines at each elevation for six nights during both wet and dry periods and food categories were determined through macro-histological analysis of stomach contents. All collected species were identified using relevant keys and confirmed by sequencing the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. A total of 3,183 individual small mammals comprised four families, eleven genera and twelve species were collected. Identified small mammals were Montemys delectorum, Crocidura luna, Lophuromys machangui, Grammomys cometes, Cricetomy ansorgei, Dendromus nyassae, Mysorex kihaulei, Crocidura olivieri, Hylomyscus arcimontensis, Beamys hindei, Graphiurus sp. nov. and Mus triton. A total of nine species were recorded during the wet season whereas ten species were recorded during the dry season. The results revealed that habitat characteristics and season significantly influenced small mammal richness, composition and diversity. The mid-montane forest exhibited the highest diversity compared to low-montane forests. Small mammal composition varied across habitats (Est ± SE = 3.36 ± 0.032, Z= 103.8, p < 0.001) with montane bushland showing significantly lower composition. Season and habitat significantly influenced species composition with montane bushland habitats having lower species composition and diversity during the dry season. The study further found out that small mammal abundance was influenced by elevation and season with mid-elevation and short rain period depicting the highest abundance. Elevation affected some species differently with P. delectorum decreasing and Lophuromys machangui increasing with an increase in elevation. On the contrary, Crocidura luna was not affected. Moreover, the results revealed that microhabitat parameters influenced abundance of individual species differently, thus indicating that altering the microhabitat could impact small mammal assemblage and abundance.Molecular information has revealed the presence of small mammal species such as Graphiurus sp. which was reported for the first time in this area. The study also demonstrated that habitat and microhabitat types, elevation gradient and seasonal variations strongly influence small mammal species abundance, diversity, richness and distribution at both the population level and individual species like P. delectorum and L. machangui. Some species such as L. machangui and P. delectorum are distributed in Northern and Southern Highlands, thus showing less influence from the boundaries between these two regions. However, the distribution of other species such as Graphiurus sp. and M. kihaulei is impacted by these boundaries. In particular, the study revealed the presence of endangered Myosorex kihaulei in MRNFR, which was previously believed to be endemic to Udzungwa Mountain only. Based on genomic analysis, the study documented novel Graphiurus sp. Such findings suggest the need to incorporate the observed species in the management plans of Southern Highland landscapes, particularly Rungwe Mountain, and consider the conservation of the noted endangered species. The findings also suggest that monitoring of species along the elevation gradient is crucial due to a greater diversity of species in Rungwe Mountains.
Value chain analysis of medicinal plants in Liwale District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Kamagenge, Akiza Victor
Medicinal plants as non-timber forest products have been playing a crucial role in the health care sector. The acceptance of herbal products by the developed world has to a large extent fuelled the current demand for medicinal plants and it is expected to grow even further with time in terms of herbal supplements and remedies. However, the medicinal plants business in Tanzania has faced and continues to face a significant number of regulatory and institutional challenges. Also, most of the research activities on medicinal plants value chain development have paid more attention to food crops and food security with few focused on the development of a friendly business environment for medicinal plants. This study examined the value chain analysis of medicinal plants in the Liwale district, Tanzania. A cross-sectional study design was adopted. The sample size was 100 medicinal plant value chain actors, where a 5% sampling intensity was used in each village under study. Quantitative data was obtained; descriptive and binary logistic regression analyses were used with the aid of SPSS software. Qualitative data was obtained from key informant interviews and focused group discussions. Later the data was analyzed using content analysis. The study found that there was a lack of awareness (82.4%) and low compliance with the business environment (83.2%). The study also found that a large number of herbal clinics and traditional healers lacked training for improving their business skills (85%). Most of the herbal clinics and traditional healers had access to financial services, especially mobile money, but few tend to use such services (79%). Furthermore, the study found out through the Binary logistic regression results that only three actors/collectors, middlemen (transporters and processors), herbal clinics, and traditional healers were found to exist along the value chain of medicinal plants. Additionally, it was concluded that the actors' profits differ, with herbal clinics and traditional dealers benefiting (1,500,000 Tshs) more than other actors along the value chain. Finally, it can be said that the medicinal plant industry has been impacted by several factors, with the capital issue being the most frequent among the respondents, indicating that it was the main issue affecting the majority of actors in the value chain for medicinal plants. The study recommends that the government should implement policies that prioritize product quality by investing in capacity-building skills and innovations to make the business more lucrative. Financial institutions should also work closely with herbal clinics and medicinal plant dealers to assist them financially. Training in the medicinal plants business is thus recommended to assist them in lowering operational costs. Different responsible organizations and authorities should provide more education to enhance awareness of the rules and regulations to herbal clinics and other traditional healers for enhancing revenue collection and also ensuring the safety of users of the medicinal plants.
Influence of human disturbances on bird assemblages in selected coastal forests of Pangani- Saadani ecosystem
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2012) Salum,Amina Rashid
This study was carried out in four forest patches; Zaraningc, Kwamsisi, Msumbugwe and Gendagenda in Pangani - Saadani ecosystem, with the aim of assessing the influence of human disturbances on bird communities, from October 2010 to January 2011. A total of eight transects stratified into core and edge areas were used in each forest patch to identify type and quantify the level of human disturbances, determine bird species composition and abundance. To achieve that, three circular plots each 20 m radius were allocated at the beginning, middle and end of a 500 m long permanent transect. The level of human disturbances was assessed using four disturbance indicators; tree lopping, human trails, identified by sight and call. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for differences between forests in human disturbances and bird abundance. While Shannon Wiener diversity index (H) was calculated for each forest patch to assess species diversity and evenness, Bray-Curtis Cluster analysis was used to determine similarity in bird species between forests. A total of 564 individuals composed of 88 bird species distributed in ten Orders were recorded. The level of pit sawing and tree lopping differed significantly between forest patches (P<0.05) with Msumbugwe being more disturbed than the rest of the forests. On the other hand, bird abundance differed significantly between the forest patches (P<0.05) with the highest abundance occurring in Msumbugwe. Contrary, Species richness and diversity disturbed forest. Apparently, only pit-sawing was found to correlate with bird abundance (P<0.01) whereas similarities in species composition were evident among forests with Zaraninge and Gendagenda exhibiting much overlap
Factors influencing the population density and distribution of udzungwa red colobus monkey (piliocolobus. gordonorum) in magombera forest reserve, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Mamuya, Natasha Riverson
Primates perform essential roles in forest ecosystems such as enhancing seed dispersion which is important in the regeneration of fragmented forests and improving soil quality through defecation. Despite their important role in forest ecosystem, they are faced with a greater risk of extinction as a result of massive forest loss and degradation which are greatly influenced by anthropogenic activities such as logging, bush fires, agriculture and settlement expansion. Furthermore, forest loss may be attributed by natural changes such as climate change, droughts and tree die back which may result to changes in forest cover or tree species composition. As an outcome of all these, their population and distribution has been directly impacted, increasing their risk of becoming extinct. Kilombero cluster is one of the biodiversity hotspot areas as it comprises of several protected areas that harbors the vulnerable P. gordonorum such as Udzungwa National Park and the fragmented Magombera Forest Reserve (MFR). Therefore, this study was conducted within Kilombero cluster to identify the population density of P. gordonorum in MFR, identify factors influencing the population density of P. gordonorum in MFR and assess the impact of climate change on the current and future distribution of suitable habitats for P. gordonorum in Kilombero cluster. Systematic distance sampling technique using line transect was used to obtain data for estimating population density. Where a total of 15 transects were established in three habitat types. Along each transect information about primate sightings, occurrence locations, human disturbances and vegetation structure were collected. Furthermore, a combination of field surveys and data downloaded from Global Biodiversity Information Facility was used to identify the current and future distribution of P. gordonorum under the influence of climate change. Shannon Weiner index was used to compute tree species diversity, Allometric models was used for above ground biomass estimation, Generalized Linear Model with Gaussian error function was run to determine the influence of predictor variables on the density of P. gordonorum and non-parametric Kruskal Wallis test was used to test for significant differences in every predictor variable. The results from this study showed that the average density of P. gordonorum in MFR was (27.4±22.12) individuals per km2 and it varied among the three habitat types namely semi-evergreen, semi-deciduous and wooded grassland with a density estimate of (44±11.3) individuals per km2, (5.5±7.4) individuals per km2 and (1±0.5) individuals per km2 respectively. Vegetation structure, availability of preferred food tree species and human disturbances was seen to influence the density of P. gordonorum. Furthermore, findings from this study revealed that, currently, the distribution of suitable habitats for the Udzungwa red colobus monkey covers an area of 1 142 400 ha for highly suitable habitats and these areas will decline to 392 000 ha and to 96 000 ha in 2050 and 2070 respectively according to RCP 8.5. From the findings, isotherm and precipitation of the wettest month were seen to greatly influence the current and future potential distribution of suitable habitats for P. gordonorum. This study has provided sufficient information on the status of P. gordonorum population in MFR. And the impact of climate change on the distribution of P. gordonorum. Furthermore, the study has helped in the identification of high priority areas for conservation of the vulnerable P. gordonorum. Finally, the study recommends for strong management and conservation initiatives for those areas that P. gordonorum have been predicted to occur. Such initiatives should involve improved management capacity in the existing nature forest reserves and village owned forests, protection of the existing wildlife corridors to ensure habitat connectivity, the balance between socio- economic gains and conservation and national wise mitigation strategies such as the reduction of greenhouse gas emission. Thus, this study calls for further research on mapping the distribution of P.gordonorum with an account of climatic variables, vegetation variables such as Normalized Vegetation Index (NDVI), percentage tree cover, topographic variables, and proximity to human disturbances.
Influence of micro-environmental conditions on ecosystem exchanges in the afro-alpine zone of mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Kulunge, Salum Ramadhani
This study was carried out in the alpine ecosystem of Mount Kilimanjaro (co, 4000 m a.s.l), from July 2012 to August 2012 with the aim of assessing the influence of micro environmental conditions on ecosystem exchanges of CO2. A total of 18 plastic soil frames with either single or combination of dominant species were used to determine and estimate the net ecosystem exchange of CO2 (FNEE) and ecosystem respiration (Reco), biomass and leaf area of dominant species, and to establish temporal and spatial variation on ecosystem CO2 exchanges. To achieve that, manually operated closed gas exchange chambers referred to as light chamber to measure net ecosystem exchange of CO2 (FNEE) and dark chamber to measure ecosystem respiration (Reco) were used. Later, the above ground plant biomass in each soil frame was harvested for leaf area and biomass determination. Leaf area and biomasses were obtained using digital scanner and through oven drying at 80 °C for 48 hours respectively. In order to assess temporal and spatial variations, soil frames were located in three subplots for repetition and measurement rounds were carried out from morning (0800 hours) to evening (17.00 hours). Both correlation and regression analysis were used to assess diurnal dependencies of CO2 concentrations on the environmental variables. The CO2 fluxes were correlated to Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) at (R2>0.95). The mean daily FNEE ranged from 1.3398 pmol m'2 s'1 to -6.2150 pmol m'2 s'1 and Reco from 1.3474 pmol m'2 s'1 to 4.6695 pmol m'2 s'1 while green biomass ranged from 302.2 gm'2 to 48.81 gm'2. The highest CO2 fluxes were evident in combination of species. Subsequently, PAR, air and soil temperatures explain most temporal variability of CO2 fluxes. Nonetheless, micro- environmental conditions created by vegetation structures that increased the leaf area for canopy level light utilization and green biomass seemed also to play important roles on CO2 exchanges.
Analysis of socio-economic impacts of uranium exploration in villages participating in Mbarang’andu wildlife management area in Namtumbo district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Aleningwa, Jonas
The rising demand for Uranium to produce nuclear energy has led to increasing interest on Uranium exploration activities in Tanzania. Tanzania reported on-going exploration The findings show that 60% of the household were of opinion that Uranium exploration has positive socio-economic impacts in their area and the remaining 40% indicated that it has negative impacts activities for Uranium in Wildlife Management Area. The aim of this study was to assess socio-economic impacts of Uranium exploration in three villages participating in Mbarang’andu WMA in Namtumbo District. The socio-economic activities in the study area were assessed in relation to Uranium exploration, determined the effects of Uranium exploration on the livelihoods of local community and examined the impact of Uranium exploration on conservation activities carried out in the villages participating in Mbarang’andu WMA. Random sampling procedure was employed to select a total of 90 households from the three villages. Data were collected through questionnaire, checklist, focus group discussion, field observation by the researcher and literature search. One third of the sample household realized increased in household income was due to Uranium exploration while majority are not sure whether the change in their income due to exploration as they were not directly participating in exploration activities. Findings indicate that conservation activities encounter difficulties due to Uranium exploration. The number of beekeepers have decreased at significant rate through (r = -0.84, p = 0.008) due to Uranium exploration. Similarly honey production per beehive has decreased, at non significant rate (r = 0.321, p = 0.436). The study concludes that there are both positive and negative impacts of Uranium exploration. The study recommends that the Government should involve local communities during establishment of exploration activities in their area. Companies doing exploration should develop and implement the conservation measures to sustain community and conservation activities.
Effects of introduction of pastoralism on wildlife conservation and livelihoods: the case of Kilimani and Utete West Villages, Rufiji District
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Rusengula, Francis
Recently, pastoralism has been introduced to Rufiji District. On one hand, the arrival of pastoralists to some places has been a blessing. On the other hand, it has brought conflicts between local communities and pastoralists. This study identified emerging conflicts, assessed existing potential effects of pastoralism on wildlife habitats and determined the effects of pastoralism on local livelihoods. Two villages were randomly selected for data collection, using a checklist and structured questionnaires administered to 149 respondents. Eight transects of 2 x 2 km, 5 quadrants of 1.5 x 1.5 m2 were established fot recording plant species richness, abundance and diversity. Descriptive statistics was also used to generate frequencies and percentages, Shannon index determined species diversity while non-parametric (Mann-Whitney) tested their differences. The rank order of the causes of conflicts were conflicts between farmers and pastoralists (81.2 %); pastoralists and wildlife (49.2%); pastoralists of different ethnic groups (42 %), and farmers and wildlife (22.3%). Livestock depredation ranked the highest cause of conflict between pastoralists and wildlife (88.8 %) while crop damage by livestock was the highest cause of conflict between farmers and pastoralist (96%). A total of 32 plant species were identified. Highly desirable species were significantly higher (p = 0.02) in livestock ungrazed areas while less desirable and undesirable species were most abundant in livestock grazed areas. Shannon index was relatively higher in grazed (3.812) than ungrazed (3.055). Increased household income through trade (80%), local government revenues through tax (10%) and availability of livestock products (10%) were positive effects of pastoralism to livelihood while crop damage by livestock resulting in food insecurity to farmers was the major negative effect. Generally, the introduction of pastoralism had more negative effects on wildlife conservation and some positive effects on local peoples’ livelihoods. Land use plan should be developed to balance different uses causing conflicts in the District.
Effects of human-elephant interactions at water sharing points in villages adjacent to Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi Game Reserve, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Laizer, Irene James
The sharing of water sources by humans and elephants is one of the common practices in societies surrounding protected reserves in rural areas across Africa. However, there is little information known about how elephants in Tanzania utilizes water sources beyond formal protected areas and the strategies to manage these challenges. This study was conducted around Rungwa-Kizigo- Muhesi Game reserve in south-western Tanzania to address the following objectives: i) to identify the main types of water sources that are shared by people and elephants on village land, ii) to examine temporal patterns in elephant use of water sources on village land, iii) to assess the number and group composition of elephants that are using village water sources, and iv) to examine community experiences and perceptions resulting from sharing water sources with elephants. Data was collected via camera trapping (n=1,369 camera-trap days between November 2021 and May 2022), key informant interviews (n=25), and questionnaires (n=188 households) among households adjacent to water sources known to be used by elephants. Data from questionnaires and key informant interviews was analyzed by Statistical Package for Social Sciences software. The test statistics used was the chi-square goodness of fit test to test the likelihood of respondents having directly experienced a problem with elephants at a water source. Additionally, logistic regression was used to explore the effect of village habitation, sex, education, age, duration of residency, and experience of respondents on willingness to share the same water sources with elephants. Camera trap images were classified using ExifPro 2.1 software and the overlap package in R software was used to generate smoothed non-parametric kernel density distributions showing the timing of elephant visits to water sources over 24 hours. Results showed that shallow wells dug by hand provided the majority of the villager‟s water needs, and 92% of elephant camera trap detections occurred there. The camera traps detected 24 elephant visits to water sources, all of which occurred at night. Female-led cow-calf groups were present in 58.3% of visits and male elephants were present in 75.0% of visits. From camera trap photos, we identified at least three distinct cow-calf groups and eleven distinct bulls. Analysis of social-economic data revealed that the majority of households (85.0%) had witnessed elephants at their primary water source and 85.2% of respondents stated they had directly experienced a problem when using a water source that was also being used by elephants. It was further revealed that women were more likely than men to have directly experienced problems with elephants. Generally, around 59.9% of respondents were unwilling to share water sources with elephants. In conclusion, key findings include the prevalence of hand-dug shallow wells as the primary water source for villagers with a high incidence of elephant visits, particularly at night. The main concerns were: elephant damage to shallow wells, delays due to elephant presence at water sources, fear of meeting elephants at water sources, water contamination, elephants being trapped inside wells, and elephants dying inside wells. To address these concerns, community members recommended constructing boreholes and communal water taps and increasing support from Game reserve rangers when elephants are on village land.
Ecology of small mammals and their ectoparasites in Mount Meru, Tanzania: insights for biodiversity conservation
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Gebrezgiher, Genet Berhe
This Thesis has been prepared in accordance with the Publishable Manuscripts format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. The study on the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals over time, their demographic characteristics, and their associations with arthropod ectoparasites was conducted between 2021 and 2022 at different elevations and habitats in Tanzania's second- highest mountain, Mount Meru. Mount Meru is one of the biodiversity hotspots in eastern Africa, hosting high level of species richness and endemism, and providing important ecosystem services. However, relatively, little is known about the ecology of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites. Similarly, little is known about the effects of environmental factors on the small mammal distribution, which potentially extending to the parasites they host. Tanzania is among the handful of countries in Africa where active foci of deadly zoonotic diseases that can be transmitted by small mammals and their ectoparasite vectors have been persistent. Moreover, Mount Meru is home for endemic and threatened species that are documented on the IUCN Red List. However, there is currently no available information regarding the possible role of arthropod ectoparasites of small mammals in the transmission of zoonotic disease. The over all goal of the study was to understand the ecological dynamics and distribution patterns of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites across different elevations of Mount Meru in Tanzania. The study aimed at addressing three key specific objectives: i) Assesing a decade-long change in the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals on Mount Meru; ii) determining the breeding and demographic aspects of montemys delectorum, an east african endemic rodent in mount Meru; iii) Examining arthropod ectoparasites of two rodent species occurring in varied elevations on Tanzania’s second highest mountain. To address the first objective, the small mammals were surveyed from February to November 2021 at six elevations between 1500 m and 3650 m using Sherman and Havahart traps. The results show that two shrew and thirteen rodent species were recorded, including Crocidura newmarki and Lophuromys verhageni, which are endemic to the study area. Species richness was highest at mid-altitudes, in line with the general patterns globally, though less pronounced in Africa. The species Arvicanthis niloticus, Mastomys natalensis, Lemniscomys striatus, Dasymys incomtus, and Cricetomys ansorgei were not documented in 2009 but have been recorded in 2021. Upward shifts in species’ ranges were observed between 2009 and 2021, suggesting the influence of climate change on the small mammal community. It is important to note that the rodent species mentioned in Chapter 2 as Praomys species have been identified as Montemys delectorum after genetic identification and recent taxonomic revisions. For the second objective, a Capture – mark – release studies were undertaken in dense and open patchy forests in four 70 m X 70 m grids from February 2021 to June 2022. The findings revealed that the species exhibited bimodal patterns of breeding seasonality, characterized by a low rate occurring during the short interval between December and February and a pronounced rate taking place from May to July. The population of Montemys delectorum was unstable in the different forest types. There was a larger population in the patchy open forest (F = 8.1; df = 1; p = 0.0001) than in dense forest, suggesting its importance as a refuge for the species. To achieve the third objective, trapping of the two most dominant rodent species of the study area, Montemys delectorum and Rhabdomys dilectus, from five elevations (1500 to 3500 m), were examined for arthropod ectoparasite infestations. The results revealed that Ctenophthalmus calceatus cabirus, Dinopsyllus ellobius, Varroa rindereri, and Xenopsylla cheopis were recovered from the rodents. This study demonstrates that the elevational distribution of arthropod ectoparasites is influenced by host sex, host species, and environmental temperature. With rising altitude, parasite prevalence and abundance decrease, indicating that colder environmental conditions at higher altitudes inhibit parasite reproduction and development. This indicates conservation efforts should focus on higher altitudes. Moreover, the rodents and ectoparasites reported in this study have been identified as possible vectors of medical and veterinary diseases in different parts of Africa, including Tanzania. It is crucial to take precautions in order to effectively reduce the risk of parasitic infection, which can pose an additional threat to both the endemic and threatened species listed on the IUCN Red List as well as the overall biodiversity of the study area. Furthermore, molecular results from this study reported a previously unidentified mite species within the Mesostigmata taxonomic group that had previously been recognized exclusively as a parasite of honeybees. Further research efforts may provide insights into the significance of this particular species of mite, Varroa rindereri. Generally, while there remains much to be learned, this particular study establishes the foundation for future initiatives in wildlife disease surveillance and biodiversity conservation management. In abroader sense, the shift in the distribution of small mammals and their ectoparasites on Mount Meru is a microcosm of the broader challenges facing mountain ecosystems worldwide. These insights go beyond the immediate context of Mount Meru and suggest that we need to consider the long-term consequences of environmental dynamics on biodiversity conservation. As these complexities continue to shape mountain landscapes, their impact is not limited to species interactions but also touches the field of human well-being. The conservation of biodiversity is intrinsically linked to our own well- being, as biodiversity and human societies are intricately intertwined. Therefore, the findings of this research serve as an urgent reminder for effective conservation action.
Diversity of rodents and shrews in Tanzania and prevalence of their parasites: a case study of Zaraninge Coastal Forest and Gongo Village
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Mkude, Irene Romanus
Rodents are important in the ecology of mammals because they serve as predators, prey, pests, and grazers. Their composition, community structure, population density, and habitat utilization are linked to environmental variables like resource availability and biological interactions. In Zaraninge Coastal Forest, several studies on rodents and shrews were undertaken before and after it the Coastal Forest was incorporated to the Saadani National Park (SANAPA). However, these studies focused on distribution and diversity of specific species of mammals in the Coastal Forest. The studies reported that human encroachment in the Coastal forest as one of threats affecting the forest. Nonetheless, information on the diversity of rodents and shrews and their parasites after annexing the forest to the National park to enhance its protection was not availed. Thus, there is a knowledge gap on the parasites of rodents and shrews, given that the rodents and shrews are reservoirs of parasites that can be potential agents of transmitting diseases to human beings. So, it was crucial to investigate the diversity of rodents and shrews, but also investigate the parasites hosted in rodents and shrews that can transmit zoonotic diseases to human beings. The findings from the study aimed to provide information on the diversity of rodents and shrews, but also information of their parasites of health importance as most outbreaks of rodent-borne diseases in humans are commonly related to socio-economic deficiencies. The study was carried out from May to October 2021. The removal method using two types of traps –Sherman and Havahart was used to collect rodents and shrews. For ectoparasites, fur of the captured individuals were combed to dislodge ectoparasites, and for hemoparasites, blood samples were collected from a supra orbital vein and blood was smeared on glass slide to make smears. In analysis the Paleontological Statistics (PAST) Program version (3.22) and Microsoft Excel (2007) were used to analyze the data, which determined the diversity and relative abundance of rodents and shrews. The prevalence of parasites in he captured individuals was also investigated using the prevalence formula in the study. The Chi-square test was employed to investigate the link between the ectoparasites infestation and the individuals' sexes. About 203 individuals were caught in this study, where 197 individuals were rodents (Mastomys natalensis, Gramomys dolichurus, Gerbilliscus leucogaster, Lemniscomys rosalia, Cricetomys spp, Beamys hindei, Graphiurus murinus and Xerus rutilus) and 7 individuals were the non-rodentia (Crocidura hirta, Petrodromus tetradactylus and Galago spp. The study findings revealed that the rodents’ diversity value was higher in the Coastal Forest, than in the Gongo Fallow Lands. The diversity of rodents in Zaraninge Coastal Forest obtained was 1.49 and that of Gongo Fallow Land was 0.22, yet, there were no any statistically difference on the diversity of the two sites. Meanwhile, the shrew diversity appeared to be similar on both sites (0.6931). The trap success (abundances) for rodents ranged from 4.60% to 0.03%, while for the shrews ranged from 0.08% to 0.05%. The infestation of ectoparasites to rodents and shrews, was higher (92.2%) in the fallow lands of Gongo Village than in the Coastal forest which had 7.8%. However, the infection rate of hemoparasites to rodents and shrews was also higher (95.1%) in the fallow lands than in the Coastal forest (4.9%). There was no significant association of the parasites infection and infestation to the sexes of the individuals caught. Yet, the count of the ectoparasites was higher on the female rodents and shrews (1035) than that of the male rodents and shrews (1026). In this study, the ectoparasites obtained were the Echinolaelaps echidninus, Boophilus spp, Xenopyslla brasiliensis and Polyplax stephensi. E. echidninus had higher prevalence of 942.6% on rodents particularly on Mastomys natalensis while the lower prevalence was seen in P. stephensi. In shrews, Boophilus spp had the highest prevalence of 233.3% than other ectoparasites. On the account of hemoparasites, Plasmodium sp had higher prevalence of 59.8% while Bacillus sp had lower prevalence of 0.5%.Therefore, these findings raises a concern on the public health of the nearby community, livestock and the wildlife since their interaction is inevitable. The parasites found in this study are of zoonotic importance, hence it’s important to put emphasis on the hygiene of the people and the environment so as to avoid any eruption of the zoonotic diseases in the community. The findings on diversity provide the information on the importance of the conservation on habitats in order to preserve species. However, higher captures on fallow lands alerts the community on developing pests control strategies to protect their farms and houses from been invaded by rodents. Further studies on rodents and shrews of peri- domestic and domestic areas, reports on zoonotic diseases that maybe found in the nearby community, development of strategies to prevent rodents as destructive pest in farms are recommended so as to get more detailed information on the rodents and shrews in these areas
The role of Bahi swamp wetland in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2012) RWEYEMAMU,RENATUS
1’hc study was conducted to assess the role of Bahi swamp resources in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities. Specifically, the study assessed the socioeconomic activities in the swamp with a potential contribution to local livelihoods, the contribution of the swamp in enhancing household food security and income and the level of local dependence on the sw'amp. Two villages (Makulu and Nagulo-Bahi) were involved. Data were collected through questionnaire, PRA techniques (resource mapping, key informant interviews and focused group discussions) and direct observation. Data were summarized and analysed using Microsoft Excel. SPSS and content analysis. Other data from discussions were analysed through relative ranking. The socioeconomic activities with potential contribution to food security and income of adjacent communities in order of importance included crop cultivation, fishing, livestock grazing and collection of thatching grasses. Cultivation of paddy rice contributed significantly to household food security generating 65.4% of total household food crop production compared to other crops grown in drier areas adjacent to the swamp. Fishing played a substantial contribution to household food security through household consumption of 10% of fish caught. For household income, sales of paddy rice from the swamp contributed 59.6% while fish sales contributed 36% of the total annual household income. Multiplier activities emerging during fishing season facilitate income to a wider group of communities. On average, 56.2% of the population depend on the swamp for daily socio-economic activities associated with generation of household food and income. The Bahi swamp and related products play a significant role iniii enhancing local livelihoods for the adjacent communities. Planning for wise use of the swamp in respect of the dominant socioeconomic activities will likely improve its contribution to livelihoods.
Potentials and constraints of eco-tourism in improving Nature conservation and livelihoods: The case of Amani Nature reserve, Tanzania
(SUA, 2010) SHOO, REHEMA ABELI
Amani Nature Reserve (ANR), which is within the Eastern Arc Mountains, is well known for its biological and ecological values. Eco-tourism is being practiced in the reserve. However, despite the fact that eco-tourism has been proposed as a viable economic activity that can minimize negative human impacts on wildlife habitat and provide an incentive to preserve natural areas, little has been reported on the potentials and constraints of the practice in the area. This study was conducted in the villages adjacent to ANR, to determine the potentials and constraints of eco-tourism in nature conservation and livelihoods improvement in and around ANR. Questionnaire survey, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and key informant interviews were the methods used in data collection. The results reveal that there are enormous natural (flora, fauna and sceneries) and cultural resources for development of productive eco-tourism in ANR. However, the existing potential is not fully exploited. Despite an increase in tourists and hence revenues in ANR, little is accrued by the local communities. Results further show that eco-tourism contributed only 9.6% to total household income annually and only 22.7% of the surveyed households were engaged in eco-tourism-relatcd activities. The study concludes that the existing level and type of involvement in eco-tourism is not effective enough to bring about significant impact, which comes into view that the potentials for eco-tourism in improving livelihoods is yet to be realized in the area. Increased local community involvements in tourism in order to improve people’s livelihoods and to enable them understand the inter-relationships between humans and the environment are recommended.iii DECLARATION I, REHEMA ABEL! SHOO, do hereby declare to the senate of Sokoine University of
Assessment of rodent-borne and zoonotic disease pathogens in humans, gogs and rodents and community awareness in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Issae, Amina Ramadhani
Bacteria and viruses carried by rodents, and domestic dogs can have significant public health implications. Rodents are known reservoirs of several zoonotic diseases, such as Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever, Lassa fever virus, plague, tuberculosis and leptospirosis. Also, domestic dogs carry zoonoses like rabies, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, ehrlichiosis and borreliosis. Zoonotic diseases pose a substantial risk to communities‘ health, mostly in wildlife, domestic animals and human interface areas. Ngorongoro district is the home of various wildlife and domestic animals cohabiting with humans. The district is experiencing the expansion of human activities which brings rodents into close proximity with human settlements. Previous studies conducted in livestock and human patients attending the health facilities have documented the existence of antibodies of zoonoses like Rift Valley fever, Brucellosis, Anthrax, and molecular detection of Bovine tuberculosis. While previous studies have examined the transmission of pathogens in livestock and hospital-based research in humans within the district, the specific role played by rodents and domestic dogs in transmitting pathogens remains largely unknown. This research gap necessitated conducting a comprehensive metagenomics study to assess the diversity and abundance of bacteria and viruses circulating among rodents, domestic dogs and humans as well as the communities understanding of rodent-borne diseases, including RVF, in the Ngorongoro district of Tanzania. The Rift Valley fever was frequently previously reported to occur within livestock and human populations of the Ngorongoro district. The disease caused significant morbidity and mortality in both livestock including humans. To address the objectives, the study used Illumina and Oxford Nanopore technologies to identify bacteria and viruses in 530 blood samples collected from 200 humans, 230 rodents, and 100 domestic dogs. Numerous bacteria and viruses were detected and identified by using MiSeq and MinION sequencers with a Kraken2 data analysis program. Moreover, the study used 3 focus groups, 20 key informant interviews, and the questionnaire (N=352) to collect information on communities‘ awareness on rodent-borne diseases and Rift Valley fever. The logistic regression model was used to examine the relationship between demographic factors and communities‘ knowledge, attitudes and practices toward rodent- borne diseases and RVF occurrences. In all three hosts, various pathogenic and zoonotic bacterial species were detected. Zoonotic airborne and contagious bacteria such as Mycobacterium spp, Mycoplasma spp, Bordetella spp and Legionella spp were spotted in rodents, domestic dogs and humans. Arthropod-borne zoonotic bacteria like Bartonella spp, Borrelia spp, and Rickettsia spp were detected in all three hosts, while Orientia spp were found in rodents and dogs. Yersinia pestis, Streptobacillus spp and Anaplasma spp were identified in rodents only. Waterborne and foodborne zoonotic bacteria were also spotted in all three hosts, including Leptospira spp, Brucella spp, Bacillus spp, and Salmonella. Generally, rodents carried a high proportion of zoonotic bacteria compared to dogs and humans. The detection of zoonotic bacteria in all three hosts showed the possibilities of cross-species transmission of infections between animals and humans sharing the same environment. Several viral families and species were detected and identified in this study. A total of 20 RNA and 20 DNA viral families and unclassified RNA viruses were detected. The majority of viral families were detected in rodents when compared to domestic dogs and humans. Peribunyaviridae, Hantaviridae, Phenuiviridae, Flaviviridae, Coronaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Retroviridae, Picornaviridae, Arenaviridae, Togaviridae, and Tobaniviridae are zoonotic RNA viruses identified in rodents. The zoonotic DNA viruses detected in rodents were Adenoviridae, Poxviridae, Herpesviridae, Anelloviridae, and Circoviridae. Peribunyaviridae and Hantaviridae viruses were identified in both rodents and humans, whereas Retroviridae was detected in rodents and domestic dogs. Unclassified +ssRNA viruses were spotted in domestic dogs and humans. Lastly, Herpesviridae was found in all three hosts. In comparison with domestic dogs and humans, rodents harboured potential zoonotic viruses of public health safety. Result showed that 8.52% of respondents had good knowledge, 35.5% had a positive attitude, and 94.3% had good practices toward rodent-borne diseases. The study revealed that only 28.13% of participants were aware of rodent-borne zoonoses. The majority of them (77.27%) believe that rodents are pests that destroy crops and do not transmit pathogens. Moreover, the findings showed that the majority of respondents (82.9%) live in huts which can provide shelter for rodents. Additionally, except for education, the level of knowledge had no significant relationship with most of the participants‘ demographic variables. Respondents with secondary education (p=0.017) had good knowledge of rodent-borne diseases and management when compared to those without education. Despite showing good practices, the communities still don‘t have enough knowledge of rodent-borne infections. The findings further showed that only 36.1%, 38.64%, and 16.19% of participants had good knowledge, positive attitudes and effective preventive practices about RVF occurrences, respectively. The significant demographic variables related to good knowledge and positive attitudes were gender (P<0.05), occupation (P<0.05) and education (P<0.05). Male respondents had good knowledge of RVF epidemiology. Individuals with formal education had good knowledge and exhibited positive attitudes towards RVF occurrences. Agropastoral members had a significantly negative attitude toward RVF occurrences compared to pastorals (P=0.048). The study revealed that the majority of respondents had poor knowledge, negative attitudes and ineffective preventive practices towards RVF epidemiology. Probably, these results were attributed to the lack of regular education campaigns to increase community awareness of the disease. This study novelty is based on the fact that it is the first to provide the baseline information on the diversity of pathogenic and zoonotic bacteria and viruses in rodents, domestic dogs and humans sharing the same environment. Likewise, it established the levels of the communities‘ knowledge, attitudes and practices toward rodent- borne diseases including Rift Valley fever in Ngorongoro district for the first time. The study population had inadequate knowledge and negative attitudes toward rodent-borne diseases and RVF. Therefore, one health multidisciplinary approach is recommended in order to safeguard public and animal health from acquiring zoonoses. Provision of health education should be a long-term practice to prevent diseases outbreaks in Ngorongoro district and in Tanzania at large.

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