Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Effects of human-elephant interactions at water sharing points in villages adjacent to Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi Game Reserve, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Laizer, Irene James
The sharing of water sources by humans and elephants is one of the common practices in societies surrounding protected reserves in rural areas across Africa. However, there is little information known about how elephants in Tanzania utilizes water sources beyond formal protected areas and the strategies to manage these challenges. This study was conducted around Rungwa-Kizigo- Muhesi Game reserve in south-western Tanzania to address the following objectives: i) to identify the main types of water sources that are shared by people and elephants on village land, ii) to examine temporal patterns in elephant use of water sources on village land, iii) to assess the number and group composition of elephants that are using village water sources, and iv) to examine community experiences and perceptions resulting from sharing water sources with elephants. Data was collected via camera trapping (n=1,369 camera-trap days between November 2021 and May 2022), key informant interviews (n=25), and questionnaires (n=188 households) among households adjacent to water sources known to be used by elephants. Data from questionnaires and key informant interviews was analyzed by Statistical Package for Social Sciences software. The test statistics used was the chi-square goodness of fit test to test the likelihood of respondents having directly experienced a problem with elephants at a water source. Additionally, logistic regression was used to explore the effect of village habitation, sex, education, age, duration of residency, and experience of respondents on willingness to share the same water sources with elephants. Camera trap images were classified using ExifPro 2.1 software and the overlap package in R software was used to generate smoothed non-parametric kernel density distributions showing the timing of elephant visits to water sources over 24 hours. Results showed that shallow wells dug by hand provided the majority of the villager‟s water needs, and 92% of elephant camera trap detections occurred there. The camera traps detected 24 elephant visits to water sources, all of which occurred at night. Female-led cow-calf groups were present in 58.3% of visits and male elephants were present in 75.0% of visits. From camera trap photos, we identified at least three distinct cow-calf groups and eleven distinct bulls. Analysis of social-economic data revealed that the majority of households (85.0%) had witnessed elephants at their primary water source and 85.2% of respondents stated they had directly experienced a problem when using a water source that was also being used by elephants. It was further revealed that women were more likely than men to have directly experienced problems with elephants. Generally, around 59.9% of respondents were unwilling to share water sources with elephants. In conclusion, key findings include the prevalence of hand-dug shallow wells as the primary water source for villagers with a high incidence of elephant visits, particularly at night. The main concerns were: elephant damage to shallow wells, delays due to elephant presence at water sources, fear of meeting elephants at water sources, water contamination, elephants being trapped inside wells, and elephants dying inside wells. To address these concerns, community members recommended constructing boreholes and communal water taps and increasing support from Game reserve rangers when elephants are on village land.
Ecology of small mammals and their ectoparasites in Mount Meru, Tanzania: insights for biodiversity conservation
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Gebrezgiher, Genet Berhe
This Thesis has been prepared in accordance with the Publishable Manuscripts format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. The study on the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals over time, their demographic characteristics, and their associations with arthropod ectoparasites was conducted between 2021 and 2022 at different elevations and habitats in Tanzania's second- highest mountain, Mount Meru. Mount Meru is one of the biodiversity hotspots in eastern Africa, hosting high level of species richness and endemism, and providing important ecosystem services. However, relatively, little is known about the ecology of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites. Similarly, little is known about the effects of environmental factors on the small mammal distribution, which potentially extending to the parasites they host. Tanzania is among the handful of countries in Africa where active foci of deadly zoonotic diseases that can be transmitted by small mammals and their ectoparasite vectors have been persistent. Moreover, Mount Meru is home for endemic and threatened species that are documented on the IUCN Red List. However, there is currently no available information regarding the possible role of arthropod ectoparasites of small mammals in the transmission of zoonotic disease. The over all goal of the study was to understand the ecological dynamics and distribution patterns of small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites across different elevations of Mount Meru in Tanzania. The study aimed at addressing three key specific objectives: i) Assesing a decade-long change in the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals on Mount Meru; ii) determining the breeding and demographic aspects of montemys delectorum, an east african endemic rodent in mount Meru; iii) Examining arthropod ectoparasites of two rodent species occurring in varied elevations on Tanzania’s second highest mountain. To address the first objective, the small mammals were surveyed from February to November 2021 at six elevations between 1500 m and 3650 m using Sherman and Havahart traps. The results show that two shrew and thirteen rodent species were recorded, including Crocidura newmarki and Lophuromys verhageni, which are endemic to the study area. Species richness was highest at mid-altitudes, in line with the general patterns globally, though less pronounced in Africa. The species Arvicanthis niloticus, Mastomys natalensis, Lemniscomys striatus, Dasymys incomtus, and Cricetomys ansorgei were not documented in 2009 but have been recorded in 2021. Upward shifts in species’ ranges were observed between 2009 and 2021, suggesting the influence of climate change on the small mammal community. It is important to note that the rodent species mentioned in Chapter 2 as Praomys species have been identified as Montemys delectorum after genetic identification and recent taxonomic revisions. For the second objective, a Capture – mark – release studies were undertaken in dense and open patchy forests in four 70 m X 70 m grids from February 2021 to June 2022. The findings revealed that the species exhibited bimodal patterns of breeding seasonality, characterized by a low rate occurring during the short interval between December and February and a pronounced rate taking place from May to July. The population of Montemys delectorum was unstable in the different forest types. There was a larger population in the patchy open forest (F = 8.1; df = 1; p = 0.0001) than in dense forest, suggesting its importance as a refuge for the species. To achieve the third objective, trapping of the two most dominant rodent species of the study area, Montemys delectorum and Rhabdomys dilectus, from five elevations (1500 to 3500 m), were examined for arthropod ectoparasite infestations. The results revealed that Ctenophthalmus calceatus cabirus, Dinopsyllus ellobius, Varroa rindereri, and Xenopsylla cheopis were recovered from the rodents. This study demonstrates that the elevational distribution of arthropod ectoparasites is influenced by host sex, host species, and environmental temperature. With rising altitude, parasite prevalence and abundance decrease, indicating that colder environmental conditions at higher altitudes inhibit parasite reproduction and development. This indicates conservation efforts should focus on higher altitudes. Moreover, the rodents and ectoparasites reported in this study have been identified as possible vectors of medical and veterinary diseases in different parts of Africa, including Tanzania. It is crucial to take precautions in order to effectively reduce the risk of parasitic infection, which can pose an additional threat to both the endemic and threatened species listed on the IUCN Red List as well as the overall biodiversity of the study area. Furthermore, molecular results from this study reported a previously unidentified mite species within the Mesostigmata taxonomic group that had previously been recognized exclusively as a parasite of honeybees. Further research efforts may provide insights into the significance of this particular species of mite, Varroa rindereri. Generally, while there remains much to be learned, this particular study establishes the foundation for future initiatives in wildlife disease surveillance and biodiversity conservation management. In abroader sense, the shift in the distribution of small mammals and their ectoparasites on Mount Meru is a microcosm of the broader challenges facing mountain ecosystems worldwide. These insights go beyond the immediate context of Mount Meru and suggest that we need to consider the long-term consequences of environmental dynamics on biodiversity conservation. As these complexities continue to shape mountain landscapes, their impact is not limited to species interactions but also touches the field of human well-being. The conservation of biodiversity is intrinsically linked to our own well- being, as biodiversity and human societies are intricately intertwined. Therefore, the findings of this research serve as an urgent reminder for effective conservation action.
Diversity of rodents and shrews in Tanzania and prevalence of their parasites: a case study of Zaraninge Coastal Forest and Gongo Village
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Mkude, Irene Romanus
Rodents are important in the ecology of mammals because they serve as predators, prey, pests, and grazers. Their composition, community structure, population density, and habitat utilization are linked to environmental variables like resource availability and biological interactions. In Zaraninge Coastal Forest, several studies on rodents and shrews were undertaken before and after it the Coastal Forest was incorporated to the Saadani National Park (SANAPA). However, these studies focused on distribution and diversity of specific species of mammals in the Coastal Forest. The studies reported that human encroachment in the Coastal forest as one of threats affecting the forest. Nonetheless, information on the diversity of rodents and shrews and their parasites after annexing the forest to the National park to enhance its protection was not availed. Thus, there is a knowledge gap on the parasites of rodents and shrews, given that the rodents and shrews are reservoirs of parasites that can be potential agents of transmitting diseases to human beings. So, it was crucial to investigate the diversity of rodents and shrews, but also investigate the parasites hosted in rodents and shrews that can transmit zoonotic diseases to human beings. The findings from the study aimed to provide information on the diversity of rodents and shrews, but also information of their parasites of health importance as most outbreaks of rodent-borne diseases in humans are commonly related to socio-economic deficiencies. The study was carried out from May to October 2021. The removal method using two types of traps –Sherman and Havahart was used to collect rodents and shrews. For ectoparasites, fur of the captured individuals were combed to dislodge ectoparasites, and for hemoparasites, blood samples were collected from a supra orbital vein and blood was smeared on glass slide to make smears. In analysis the Paleontological Statistics (PAST) Program version (3.22) and Microsoft Excel (2007) were used to analyze the data, which determined the diversity and relative abundance of rodents and shrews. The prevalence of parasites in he captured individuals was also investigated using the prevalence formula in the study. The Chi-square test was employed to investigate the link between the ectoparasites infestation and the individuals' sexes. About 203 individuals were caught in this study, where 197 individuals were rodents (Mastomys natalensis, Gramomys dolichurus, Gerbilliscus leucogaster, Lemniscomys rosalia, Cricetomys spp, Beamys hindei, Graphiurus murinus and Xerus rutilus) and 7 individuals were the non-rodentia (Crocidura hirta, Petrodromus tetradactylus and Galago spp. The study findings revealed that the rodents’ diversity value was higher in the Coastal Forest, than in the Gongo Fallow Lands. The diversity of rodents in Zaraninge Coastal Forest obtained was 1.49 and that of Gongo Fallow Land was 0.22, yet, there were no any statistically difference on the diversity of the two sites. Meanwhile, the shrew diversity appeared to be similar on both sites (0.6931). The trap success (abundances) for rodents ranged from 4.60% to 0.03%, while for the shrews ranged from 0.08% to 0.05%. The infestation of ectoparasites to rodents and shrews, was higher (92.2%) in the fallow lands of Gongo Village than in the Coastal forest which had 7.8%. However, the infection rate of hemoparasites to rodents and shrews was also higher (95.1%) in the fallow lands than in the Coastal forest (4.9%). There was no significant association of the parasites infection and infestation to the sexes of the individuals caught. Yet, the count of the ectoparasites was higher on the female rodents and shrews (1035) than that of the male rodents and shrews (1026). In this study, the ectoparasites obtained were the Echinolaelaps echidninus, Boophilus spp, Xenopyslla brasiliensis and Polyplax stephensi. E. echidninus had higher prevalence of 942.6% on rodents particularly on Mastomys natalensis while the lower prevalence was seen in P. stephensi. In shrews, Boophilus spp had the highest prevalence of 233.3% than other ectoparasites. On the account of hemoparasites, Plasmodium sp had higher prevalence of 59.8% while Bacillus sp had lower prevalence of 0.5%.Therefore, these findings raises a concern on the public health of the nearby community, livestock and the wildlife since their interaction is inevitable. The parasites found in this study are of zoonotic importance, hence it’s important to put emphasis on the hygiene of the people and the environment so as to avoid any eruption of the zoonotic diseases in the community. The findings on diversity provide the information on the importance of the conservation on habitats in order to preserve species. However, higher captures on fallow lands alerts the community on developing pests control strategies to protect their farms and houses from been invaded by rodents. Further studies on rodents and shrews of peri- domestic and domestic areas, reports on zoonotic diseases that maybe found in the nearby community, development of strategies to prevent rodents as destructive pest in farms are recommended so as to get more detailed information on the rodents and shrews in these areas
The role of Bahi swamp wetland in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2012) RWEYEMAMU,RENATUS
1’hc study was conducted to assess the role of Bahi swamp resources in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities. Specifically, the study assessed the socioeconomic activities in the swamp with a potential contribution to local livelihoods, the contribution of the swamp in enhancing household food security and income and the level of local dependence on the sw'amp. Two villages (Makulu and Nagulo-Bahi) were involved. Data were collected through questionnaire, PRA techniques (resource mapping, key informant interviews and focused group discussions) and direct observation. Data were summarized and analysed using Microsoft Excel. SPSS and content analysis. Other data from discussions were analysed through relative ranking. The socioeconomic activities with potential contribution to food security and income of adjacent communities in order of importance included crop cultivation, fishing, livestock grazing and collection of thatching grasses. Cultivation of paddy rice contributed significantly to household food security generating 65.4% of total household food crop production compared to other crops grown in drier areas adjacent to the swamp. Fishing played a substantial contribution to household food security through household consumption of 10% of fish caught. For household income, sales of paddy rice from the swamp contributed 59.6% while fish sales contributed 36% of the total annual household income. Multiplier activities emerging during fishing season facilitate income to a wider group of communities. On average, 56.2% of the population depend on the swamp for daily socio-economic activities associated with generation of household food and income. The Bahi swamp and related products play a significant role iniii enhancing local livelihoods for the adjacent communities. Planning for wise use of the swamp in respect of the dominant socioeconomic activities will likely improve its contribution to livelihoods.
Potentials and constraints of eco-tourism in improving Nature conservation and livelihoods: The case of Amani Nature reserve, Tanzania
(SUA, 2010) SHOO, REHEMA ABELI
Amani Nature Reserve (ANR), which is within the Eastern Arc Mountains, is well known for its biological and ecological values. Eco-tourism is being practiced in the reserve. However, despite the fact that eco-tourism has been proposed as a viable economic activity that can minimize negative human impacts on wildlife habitat and provide an incentive to preserve natural areas, little has been reported on the potentials and constraints of the practice in the area. This study was conducted in the villages adjacent to ANR, to determine the potentials and constraints of eco-tourism in nature conservation and livelihoods improvement in and around ANR. Questionnaire survey, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and key informant interviews were the methods used in data collection. The results reveal that there are enormous natural (flora, fauna and sceneries) and cultural resources for development of productive eco-tourism in ANR. However, the existing potential is not fully exploited. Despite an increase in tourists and hence revenues in ANR, little is accrued by the local communities. Results further show that eco-tourism contributed only 9.6% to total household income annually and only 22.7% of the surveyed households were engaged in eco-tourism-relatcd activities. The study concludes that the existing level and type of involvement in eco-tourism is not effective enough to bring about significant impact, which comes into view that the potentials for eco-tourism in improving livelihoods is yet to be realized in the area. Increased local community involvements in tourism in order to improve people’s livelihoods and to enable them understand the inter-relationships between humans and the environment are recommended.iii DECLARATION I, REHEMA ABEL! SHOO, do hereby declare to the senate of Sokoine University of
Assessment of rodent-borne and zoonotic disease pathogens in humans, gogs and rodents and community awareness in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Issae, Amina Ramadhani
Bacteria and viruses carried by rodents, and domestic dogs can have significant public health implications. Rodents are known reservoirs of several zoonotic diseases, such as Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever, Lassa fever virus, plague, tuberculosis and leptospirosis. Also, domestic dogs carry zoonoses like rabies, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, ehrlichiosis and borreliosis. Zoonotic diseases pose a substantial risk to communities‘ health, mostly in wildlife, domestic animals and human interface areas. Ngorongoro district is the home of various wildlife and domestic animals cohabiting with humans. The district is experiencing the expansion of human activities which brings rodents into close proximity with human settlements. Previous studies conducted in livestock and human patients attending the health facilities have documented the existence of antibodies of zoonoses like Rift Valley fever, Brucellosis, Anthrax, and molecular detection of Bovine tuberculosis. While previous studies have examined the transmission of pathogens in livestock and hospital-based research in humans within the district, the specific role played by rodents and domestic dogs in transmitting pathogens remains largely unknown. This research gap necessitated conducting a comprehensive metagenomics study to assess the diversity and abundance of bacteria and viruses circulating among rodents, domestic dogs and humans as well as the communities understanding of rodent-borne diseases, including RVF, in the Ngorongoro district of Tanzania. The Rift Valley fever was frequently previously reported to occur within livestock and human populations of the Ngorongoro district. The disease caused significant morbidity and mortality in both livestock including humans. To address the objectives, the study used Illumina and Oxford Nanopore technologies to identify bacteria and viruses in 530 blood samples collected from 200 humans, 230 rodents, and 100 domestic dogs. Numerous bacteria and viruses were detected and identified by using MiSeq and MinION sequencers with a Kraken2 data analysis program. Moreover, the study used 3 focus groups, 20 key informant interviews, and the questionnaire (N=352) to collect information on communities‘ awareness on rodent-borne diseases and Rift Valley fever. The logistic regression model was used to examine the relationship between demographic factors and communities‘ knowledge, attitudes and practices toward rodent- borne diseases and RVF occurrences. In all three hosts, various pathogenic and zoonotic bacterial species were detected. Zoonotic airborne and contagious bacteria such as Mycobacterium spp, Mycoplasma spp, Bordetella spp and Legionella spp were spotted in rodents, domestic dogs and humans. Arthropod-borne zoonotic bacteria like Bartonella spp, Borrelia spp, and Rickettsia spp were detected in all three hosts, while Orientia spp were found in rodents and dogs. Yersinia pestis, Streptobacillus spp and Anaplasma spp were identified in rodents only. Waterborne and foodborne zoonotic bacteria were also spotted in all three hosts, including Leptospira spp, Brucella spp, Bacillus spp, and Salmonella. Generally, rodents carried a high proportion of zoonotic bacteria compared to dogs and humans. The detection of zoonotic bacteria in all three hosts showed the possibilities of cross-species transmission of infections between animals and humans sharing the same environment. Several viral families and species were detected and identified in this study. A total of 20 RNA and 20 DNA viral families and unclassified RNA viruses were detected. The majority of viral families were detected in rodents when compared to domestic dogs and humans. Peribunyaviridae, Hantaviridae, Phenuiviridae, Flaviviridae, Coronaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Retroviridae, Picornaviridae, Arenaviridae, Togaviridae, and Tobaniviridae are zoonotic RNA viruses identified in rodents. The zoonotic DNA viruses detected in rodents were Adenoviridae, Poxviridae, Herpesviridae, Anelloviridae, and Circoviridae. Peribunyaviridae and Hantaviridae viruses were identified in both rodents and humans, whereas Retroviridae was detected in rodents and domestic dogs. Unclassified +ssRNA viruses were spotted in domestic dogs and humans. Lastly, Herpesviridae was found in all three hosts. In comparison with domestic dogs and humans, rodents harboured potential zoonotic viruses of public health safety. Result showed that 8.52% of respondents had good knowledge, 35.5% had a positive attitude, and 94.3% had good practices toward rodent-borne diseases. The study revealed that only 28.13% of participants were aware of rodent-borne zoonoses. The majority of them (77.27%) believe that rodents are pests that destroy crops and do not transmit pathogens. Moreover, the findings showed that the majority of respondents (82.9%) live in huts which can provide shelter for rodents. Additionally, except for education, the level of knowledge had no significant relationship with most of the participants‘ demographic variables. Respondents with secondary education (p=0.017) had good knowledge of rodent-borne diseases and management when compared to those without education. Despite showing good practices, the communities still don‘t have enough knowledge of rodent-borne infections. The findings further showed that only 36.1%, 38.64%, and 16.19% of participants had good knowledge, positive attitudes and effective preventive practices about RVF occurrences, respectively. The significant demographic variables related to good knowledge and positive attitudes were gender (P<0.05), occupation (P<0.05) and education (P<0.05). Male respondents had good knowledge of RVF epidemiology. Individuals with formal education had good knowledge and exhibited positive attitudes towards RVF occurrences. Agropastoral members had a significantly negative attitude toward RVF occurrences compared to pastorals (P=0.048). The study revealed that the majority of respondents had poor knowledge, negative attitudes and ineffective preventive practices towards RVF epidemiology. Probably, these results were attributed to the lack of regular education campaigns to increase community awareness of the disease. This study novelty is based on the fact that it is the first to provide the baseline information on the diversity of pathogenic and zoonotic bacteria and viruses in rodents, domestic dogs and humans sharing the same environment. Likewise, it established the levels of the communities‘ knowledge, attitudes and practices toward rodent- borne diseases including Rift Valley fever in Ngorongoro district for the first time. The study population had inadequate knowledge and negative attitudes toward rodent-borne diseases and RVF. Therefore, one health multidisciplinary approach is recommended in order to safeguard public and animal health from acquiring zoonoses. Provision of health education should be a long-term practice to prevent diseases outbreaks in Ngorongoro district and in Tanzania at large.
Breeding population status and habitat preferences of white- backed vulture in Ikorongo- Grumeti Game Reserves and Ikona Wildlife Management area in Western Serengeti
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Vainess, Solomon Laizer
White -backed vulture (Gyps africanus) is a critically endangered species since its population has significantly declined across its geographical ranges. Apparently, vultures provide the ecosystem with cleaning service hence reduced risk of disease spread through their feeding behaviour. Studying the breeding population status and habitat of these species is of paramount importance in maintaining a healthy population as well as managing and mitigating threats to the species and their associated habitats. This study aimed at investigating the breeding population status and the nesting preferences of the Gyps africanus population in the Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserves and Ikona wildlife management area (WMA) in the western corridor of the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem along the primary riparian zones (PRZ). The PRZ consisted of the Grumeti, Manchira, Nyabeu, Samisami, Rokare, Romoti, Maruru and Muyambi Rivers and their tributaries. This study used the project historical aerial surveys data gathered from 2013 to 2021 to produce breeding population trend and conducted ground nest surveys in 2021 and 2022 to estimate the breeding success and nesting preferences of the species. Due to the colonial nesting behaviour of the species, cluster analysis was used to group the nesting hotspots as well as remote sensing analysis to assess the tree cover in their breeding habitat. According to results of the aerial survey data, the breeding population in the game reserves and their contiguous WMA has declined by 56%, and based on the active nest survey, breeding success was 29%, that being lower than the previously documented information for the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem which was 90%. Individuals were found nesting along the rivers in the Ficus and Vachellia and Senegalia woodlands. Majority of the nests (57%) were found on Ficus sycomoras whereas the least number (1%) was found on Ficus indica. The tree height was the most significant tree factor for nesting tree as observed from the generelized linear model. Nesting hotspots were classified as former or intermittent hotspots, and none were classified as persistent hotspots. Net tree loss was observed in all hotspot categories, and a 28% reduction in riparian tree cover was detected. The study concludes that the Gyps africanus population in the area is declining, parallel with dropping breeding success and deteriorating breeding habitats. Seemingly, habitat loss/deterioration is a driving factor, which together with other potential threats to the population, need further investigation. Such baseline information is of critical importance to the management and conservation efforts of vultures and their overall breeding habitats in the ecosystem.
Communities and conservation in West Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: participation, costs and benefits Lokalsanilimn og naturvern i Vest-Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: Deltakelse, kostnadcrog nyttc
(Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2015) Mariki Sayuni Bildad
This thesis contributes to the current debate on how to balance conservation and development objectives. The extent of land under protection globally has increased enormously over the last 30 years, and there are still plans to expand the current protected areas (P/Xs) and create new ones. Their establishment is associated with impacts on local communities who live in the proximity of such areas. Different actors have proposed local participation and benefit sharing for people affected by these conservation initiatives. Despite their implementation over three decades, the social, economic, and political impacts of establishing and maintaining PAs remain debatable. It is in this context that this study was conducted in the I'nduimet Wildlife Management Area (WMA). the Kilimanjaro National Park, and the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation in Tanzania. I he specific research questions of the study are: What are the social and economic impacts of the expansion and establishment of conservation areas on local people in West Kilimanjaro; and how are the impacts distributed along gender lines? ii. iii. How are the conservation benefits shared with local communities in West Kilimanjaro? How do the conservation benefits and costs alTect local peoples* attitudes towards and perceptions of conservation? iv. What are the factors that drive human-wildlife conflicts? Data were collected using qualitative methods through the combination of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, informal interviews, and participant observation. Secondary data in the form of written sources on the study area were used in addition to the primary data gathered. The research results are presented in four separate but interrelated papers. Paper I investigates the gendered impacts of the creation of the Enduimet WMA and expansion of the Kilimanjaro National Park during recent years. The results of Paper 1 indicate that the establishment of these PAs has caused local people to lose rights to land and resources, harassment by PA staff, and increased conservation costs. The costs were found to be distributed along gender lines. However, women are affected more than men, due to inequality in the division of labour and resources at household level. Furthermore, relatively wealthy men and women suffer less compared to their poor counterparts because they are capable of buy ing natural resources such as fodder and firewood, an option which is less available to the poor. Furthermore, women in female headed households suffer more, compared to women in male-headed households, because they lack sufficient labour power for collecting natural resources and thus spend more time and energy in doing so. In addition, some are poor hence they lack the money to purchase these resources, while others are of old age and do not have relatives willing to help. Collecting natural resources forces poor women to spend more time and labour, which affects their health and restricts their time for participating in economic activ ities. Paper II explores the local benefits and transparency concerning the collection and distribution of tourism revenues from the Enduimet WMA. The results of Paper II show that the benefits channelled to local people who bear the costs of conservation are modest, and the system lacks transparency. The Enduimet Community-Based Organisation is entitled to receive 65 % of non consumptive tourism revenues accrued from the WMA. In practice, it receives less than 65 % after the revenues collected have passed through the non-transparent central government system. In 2011 each village received about 3.6 % of the tourism fees, and altogether the member villages received 32.5 %. When taking into account the uncompensated costs that some villagers bear in terms of increased crop damage, livestock loss, and loss of human life caused by increasing wildlife populations, the practice docs not match the ‘win-win’ discourse, that the Enduimet WMA will secure a sustainable source of income for local communities. Paper III compares the Kilimanjaro National Park and the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation in terms of local participation and benefit sharing, and how these alTcct relations between local communities and the two areas. The results of Paper III show that the Kilimanjaro National Park cams about 17 million USD per year, but from the inception of the park outreach programme in 1994 to 2011 (17 years), the park has spent only about 1.6 million USD to support 39 out of 90 neighbouring villages. Only one village among the three studied was supported by the park in 2002/03, in the form of the constniction of a water intake and storage tank worth 13,571 USD. The headquarters claim that they offer 7.5 % of the park's operational budget to neighbouring villages, but in practice, it is much less. Revenue sharing in the park is affected by bureaucratic procedures hampering applications for community projects, political influence, lack of transparency, mismanagement, and misuse of funds by national parks headquarters. It was found that some income was used to support parks (hat generate insufficient income. In addition, there is generally a lack of communication between the park and villagers. Villagers feel resentment towards the park that leads them to withdraw park resources illegally. They referred to the park stall'as ‘enemies' who do not care about their livelihoods. On the contrary, the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation has had a positive impact on neighbouring villages. Local communities benefit through the legal collection of forest products, farming opportunities, logging businesses for registered customers, and casual labour opportunities. Income from casual labour and agriculture serves as a source of income for them and their families. Nevertheless, casual labourers are paid too little (2.5 USD/day) and the process of allocating farming plots is affected by favouritism. The differences observed between the two areas are related to sectoral legal reforms in the 1990s to accommodate locally-based and decentralised approaches to natural resources management following the economic crisis of the late 1970s to the early 1980s. and the resulting declining capacity of government agencies. Based on inspiration drawn from the field of political ecology. Paper IV applies ‘webs of relation' approach to unwind inter-related factors behind cases of elephant killings in West Kilimanjaro. In recent years, there has been a considerable increase in elephant killings in Africa, for ivory'. I lowever, the ivory market is not the only reason why elephants are killed illegally. The results of Paper IV show that resistance to conservation is a reason behind elephant killings in this case, following appropriations of large tracts of land for conservation by external actors without the participation of local people. Local people suffer costs such as crop raiding, property damage, livestock deaths, and a threat to their own lives as they try to sustain a living on the remaining land that lies between conservation areas. In addition, they lack government support in chasing wildlife away from their fields, and they are not compensated for w ildlife damages. They are denied access to natural resources in the PAs. they are ill treated when found in the PAs. and they receive little or no benefits from conservation. Moreover, they lack land security, as there are more proposals from conservationists to create new conservation areas. This leaves people with an increased feeling of being marginalised and disempowered, with limited possibilities of influencing the situation through democratic means. Thus, local people resist conservation by killing wildlife. All areas studied (Enduimet WMA. Kilimanjaro National Park, and West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation) share a centralised structure in terms of decision making on the management of natural resources and benefit sharing. Local people are not able to participate in decision making in the management of the areas, and it is difficult for communities to influence or challenge the way the structure operates. In Enduimet. the WMA was proposed as community-run conservation area. In practice, the communities do not have the power to collect revenues, decide on shares, or to verify whether they receive the income they are entitled to receive. The central government collects the revenues and channels the percentage to local people. The Kilimanjaro National Park was found to involve local people only when there is a fire outbreak; thus local people claimed to be used as ‘tools’. The park management system docs not allow space lor local people’s opinions. Most of the collected revenues are retained by the national parks headquarters and local people do not have any power or influence over the revenues. In practice, the park operates under a strict “fences and fines’ or 'fortress conservation’ strategy. In the West Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation, local people do not have any power or share of the revenues collected from the sale of logs and poles, apart from payment received from casual labour. The income from logs sold is remitted to the central government. In all three areas, participation is used as ‘means’ to improve environmental conservation and a way to accrue more revenue for the government.
Population ecology of Beamys hindei and Rhynchocyon petersi in selected coastal forests of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016) Sabuni, Christopher Andrew
This thesis is prepared according to ''Publishable manuscripts" format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. The study on the population ecology vis-a-vis: distribution. population dynamics, space use and behavior, genetic diversity and structure of Beamys hindei and Rhynchocyon petersi was conducted from 2010 lo 2014 in selected coastal Ibrests (Kwamsisi, Gendagenda, Madeie, Mbulizaga, Askari and Zaraninge) within and around Saadani National Park, Tanzania. Distribution of B. hindei was assessed using Sherman traps while for R. petersi camera traps were used. Capture mark recapture was used for population dynamics of B. hindei in Zaraninge forest. Radio telemetry together with camera traps was used to determine home range and activity patterns for R. petersi in Zaraninge forest. Standard genetic methods were used for development of microsatellites and determining genetic diversity and structure of R. petersi in the Zaraninge, Mbulizaga, Askari and Gendagenda. Results on distribution indicate R. petersi was found in all forests while B. hindei was found in some forest and absent in some other forests. Population fluctuation, demographic patterns of B. hindei in Zaraninge forest, showed a mean survival rate of 0.72 (range 0.65-078) with a recruitment of 1 animal/28 days and a litter size of 2.8 indicating a low abundance with stable population. The average home range of R. petersi from radio telemetry was 2.6 ha. Activity pattern differed between seasons with more activity observed on dry season (F =9.75, df 1, 28, p 0.004. Eight polymorphic microsatellites using next generation sequencing technology based on eighteen R. petersi were genotyped. Developed eight microsalellites were used to determine diversity and structure of R. petersi. Results indicate extant R. petersi have descended from a single population of high effective size (Ne) with no forest distinctive signal. In contrast, B. hindei was more genetically structured. It recommends further investigation if the 'population robustness’ of R. petersi in the fragmented coastal forest applies to other parts of its range, notably in the East Arc Mountain forests. Conservation status of R. petersi should remain as vulnerable while B. hindei should be reviewed to vulnerable. Conservation program are required lo sate guard these species
Factors affecting wildlife based domestic tourism in the northern tourist circuit, Tanzania
(Sokoine University Of Agriculture, 2006) Mariki, Sayuni
The study on factors affecting domestic tourism was carried out in northern Tanzania tourist circuit. The study had the following objectives: (i) To determine the characteristics of domestic tourists, (ii) To assess the trend in tourism and domestic tourism, (iii) To identify and assess factors affecting domestic tourism, (iv) To assess efforts undertaken to promote domestic tourism, (v) To propose ways by which domestic tourism can be improved. A sample of 140 domestic tourists, 142 selected individuals from markets and streets, 27 tour operators, 5 Protected areas (PAs) management staff, 6 PAs gate clerks and park guides, and 2 tourist organizations were interviewed. The results revealed that: (i) The age group of 26 - 37 was the most active group in visiting protected areas. The age groups of <20 years and >49 years rarely visited the PAs (ii) Low income was indicated as the main constraint (77.0%) affecting the growth of domestic tourism, followed by lack of awareness (71.8%), tourism education (53.0%) and lack of interest to travel (53.0%). (iii) There was a linear increase in the number of tourists in the three PAs from 1998 — 2003 due to the improvement of activities, facilities and services, (iv) Tourism education to all people, and improvement of services and facilities were the opinions given for the improvement of domestic tourism. It is recommended that, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism through its departments and organizations should put more efforts in domestic tourism promotion and marketing by using many and different ways since many factors found to affect domestic tourism in the country that had different weights of importance.
The role of local communities in wildlife management: a case study of the Serengeti regional conservation project, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2003) Ngowe, Nollasco Matozi
The study was conducted in the western corridor of the Serengeti National Park between October 2001 and January 2002. Tire study area included villages bordering the Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserve, Ikoma Wildlife Management Area, and the Serengeti National Park. Specifically, the study was intended to assess the effectiveness of local communities in wildlife management; assess the relationship between the local community and wildlife authorities; and assess if there is any decline in poaching in the study villages. The study involved four villages of 14 villages under the SRCP where in each village, at least 5% of the households were sampled. Primary data were obtained from questionnaire survey, focus group discussions, check list and the researcher’s observations. The study revealed that both village natural resources committees (VNRCs) and village game scouts (VGS) were significantly effective in combating poaching than expected (%2 = 108.3, p<0.001 and %2 = 90.13, p<0.001, for VNRCs and VGS respectively). The relationship with wildlife authorities was said to be excellent by 29.2% of the respondents, 69.2% said there was good relations while 1.7% said it was poor. Furthermore, 98.3% of respondents said poaching has decreased since the introduction of community-based conservation by SRCP. Poaching was ranked as the most important threat to wildlife conservation, followed by lack of community participation in wildlife management, increasing livestock numbers, and agriculture. Other problems in the area included severe shortage of water for livestock during the dry season was pointed out by 83.3% of the respondents while 50% stated the shortage of grazing area. Crop damage was also a problem and the most problem animals mentioned by respondents were bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus) (84.2%), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) (77.5%), olive baboon (Papio anubis anubis) (55.0%), and the elephant (Loxodonta africana) (44.4%). On the other hand, communities received a total of 36 millions TAS (equivalent to 45.5 thousands USD) from 1998 to 2001 as a form of tangible benefits from the community wildlife hunting and 44 million TAS (equivalent to 48.1 thousands USD) from non-consumptive photographic safaris. The study concludes that active participatory approaches that are used by SRCP have contributed to the success of the project in winning support of local communities at the grass root level. Local communities arc treated with respect, as equal partners in conservation, not as targets of conservation or education projects. Decision making power is shared, and the role of the project staff is to act as catalysts and intermediaries. Based on the study, the following recommendations are given: -More support should be provided to the village game scouts. -There should be integration between crop and livestock production system. -Wildlife conservation education should be added in the primary school syllabus. -The use of non-lethal deterrents for crop protection against wildlife especially elephants should be researched in the area. -Villages should be assisted in exploring the potential investors especially on photographic tourism and tourist hunting.
Land use changes along wildlife corridors and their implications to conservation: a case of Saadani-Wami-Mbiki Wildlife corridor, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Kileo, Lawrence Ebenezeri
Wildlife corridors are facing conservation threats as a result of land use changes within and along them. The understanding of changes happening in the corridors over time is important for establishing the management baseline data. This study aimed at identifying land use changes along Saadani-Wami-Mbiki wildlife corridor and their implications to wildlife conservation. Specifically the study determined the rate of land cover changes in the corridor between 1975 and 2011 and assessed the associated land use practices towards corridor land cover change. Land sat imageries of 1975. 1995 and 2011 were used to assess the rate of vegetation cover changes as a result of various land use practices carried out in the corridor. Household survey and key informants interview methods were used to obtain socio-economic data which were analysed using SPSS while satellite imagery data were analysed using the ER.DAS IMAGINE 9.1 and ArcGIS 9.3 programmes. In the past 36 years (1975-2011). the cultivated land increased by 25%, settlement by 13%, open forest by 10% while closed forest and grassland decreased by 18% and 3% respectively. Shifting cultivation, over grazing, charcoal making and settlements were identified as major land use practices threatening the corridor. Basing on the results, it is recommended that, deliberate measures are needed to address about poverty of local communities around the corridor. Among the potentials include ecological and cultural tourism and beekeeping.
Diversity of terrestrial small mammals and prevalence of haemopathogens in rattus rattus of Mafia island, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Sirilo, Tecla Mageni
This study presents the diversity of terrestrial small mammals and prevalence of haemopathogens in Mafia Islands and the small islands (Chole, Jibondo, Juani and Shungimbili) which are associated with Mafia. Terrestrial small mammals comprise a group of mammals including volant and non-volant which are cosmopolitan and successful due to their wide range of feeding, adaptive reproduction strategies and habitat occupation. A study on the diversity of small mammals and their haemopathogens prevalence was conducted in Mafia Island and small islands associated with it from August to October 2021. A total of 120 rodents were captured by direct method using Sherman traps and indirectly using camera traps. Each directly trapped individual was immobilized with ethanol and parameters such as weight and sex were recorded. The samples that were taken include an earpiece which was preserved in Eppendorf tube containing 90% ethanol for further confirmatory species identification using molecular techniques. For the purpose of molecularly identifying the hemopathogens, 0.5 ml of blood was collected from the retro-orbital sinus using a capillary tube and kept as a dried blood spot on filter paper (Whatman paper). According to the findings, all of the collected rodents were classified as Rattus rattus and belonged to the RrC lineage I. One Crocidura hildegardae shrew was also trapped.Our camera traps recorded black and rufous sengi Rhynchocyon petersi, blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis, blue duiker Cephalophus monticola, the introduced Small Indian Genet Viverricula indica, and the red bush squirrel Paraxerus palliatus. Of the 120 Rattus rattus, 13.33% tested positive for Bartonella DNA. Prevalence between the six studied sites was significantly different (df = 5 and p-value <0.001). None of the rickettsia, leptospira, brucella, anaplasma, coxiella and trypanosoma was detected. Despite the limited time of data collection, our results show that there is low diversity of small mammals on the Mafia islands, with R. rattus dominating in all small islands. Also, the results show the presence of Uncultured Bartonella spp among other haemopathogen being obtained in R. rattus. The study recommends further studies in the rest of forest patches in Mafia and to also explore the diversity of flying mammals which was not included in this study but also to explore more on the prevalence of haemopathogens within the island. Key Words: Diversity, Small mammals, Rattus rattus, Haemopathogens, Bartonella, Mafia
Rodent community structure and their damage in cotton crop fields in Kilosa district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Seif, William
Rodent is the one of vertebrates group causing a significant crop loss from planting, harvest to storages. This study assessed abundance, diversity, age structure, sex ratio, damage level and food categories of rodent at different cotton growth stages (seedling, vegetative as well as flowering and boll development stages). The study was conducted in Kilosa, Tanzania in two different habitats (cotton fields and fallow lands) between March 2020 and August 2020. Rodent population was sampled through capture-mark-recapture (Peterson methods) trapping technique and individual stomachs were collected from snap traps. In all cotton growth stages, Mastomys natalensis predominated at seedling stage (63.64%) as well as at vegetative stage (50%), while at flowering and boll development stage, Leminscomys zebra dominated (50%) of all captures. Higher damage levels observed only at seedling stage (33%). Different types of foods were consumed in fields, but seeds, invertebrates and plant materials were predominantly consumed. The findings highlight clearly that rodents were more abundant at seedling stage and M. natalensis was dominant at that stage, also cotton damages were observed at that stage while no damages were observed in other stages. The study confirms that large population of rodent and damage of cotton crops largely occurred at seedling stage. Therefore, management actions may be more effective at seedling stage of cotton growth in the fields.
Patterns of fish community structure in protected and non-protected marine areas in Tanzania mainland
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Salema, Fausta
Over the years Marine Protected Areas (MPA) have excelled in protecting marine biodiversity contrary to other less protected areas. However, information on the performance of protection on the condition of fish stocks is less well documented in Tanzania. The survey was done on fish landing sites located in Tanga and Mtwara regions to assess patterns of fish community structure particularly on the fish abundance, species diversity, growth patterns, and maturity stages based on catches landed from sites differing in protection status. The fish abundance from protected areas was significantly lower than in non-protected areas (p=0.002). Species’ diversity was relatively higher in catches from non-protected (H=2.742) than in protected areas (H=2.232). High percentage of species (63.24%) exhibiting negative allometric growths were observed in catches landed from non-protected areas. Further, large number of matured fish was observed in catches from protected areas compared to non-protected areas (p<0.01). These indices are useful indicators of the performance of MPAs. The observed negative allometric growth in fishes and low fish maturity in the non-protected area strongly suggest the role of high or uncontrolled extractive pressure and disturbances caused by the fishing gears on the fish stock. Continued high extraction may induce a decline in general fish size due to constantly selecting for large trait fish stock, potentially causing evolutionally change in morphological traits. In contrast the lower abundance and species diversity from the protected area is reflective of low catch effort, a common strategy of regulating fishing pressure in MPA rather than indicating the actual diversity in the fish stocks in these protected waters. Based on these findings more regulatory strategies of fishing in the open waters are recommended to allow for more time for the fish to attain the appropriate size and to ensure the effective protection of marine resources.
Influence of agro-pastoralism on herbaceous plants diversity and livelihood of communities in Western Serengeti
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2021) Kavana, Pius Yoram
First of all I would like to thank the Almighty God for granting me life and strength that enabled me to execute this study. I wish to acknowledge the financial support from my employer (Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute) through AfricanBioServices project No. GA 641918 of which this work would never have been completed without the grant provided to me. I would like to acknowledge my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Professors Ephraim Mtengeti, Christopher Mahonge and Anthony Sangeda who have supervised this PhD thesis with invaluable enthusiasm. Their valuable advice and insightful criticism over the whole thesis have been of the utmost significance in an entire period of my study. Special thanks to Dr. Robert Fyumagwa for logistics and proper arrangement of field trips without his administration skills I would never have completed data collection in the wild of western Serengeti. I would like to extend my deepest sense of both personal and professional gratitude to Dr. Bukombe John Kija for inspiration and professional guidance both while in the field and during data analysis. Special thanks to Dr. Renalda Munubi for tireless encouragement and support that pushed me to apply R statistical software in data analysis. I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to Dr. Stephen Nindi for not hesitating to mention my name during nomination of candidates to pursue PhD studies. I believe I have not let him down as I have managed to push this work to its demise! I am grateful to all TAWIRI colleagues and fellow PhD students who assisted me in one way or another till I managed to reach the demise of this challenging course of action. I will never forget you my friends!x My heartfelt gratitude goes to my wonderful wife Rose, who accepted and encouraged me to begin field work in the wild of Serengeti ecosystem by purchasing two pairs of tough boots that enabled me to avoid prickles of acacia thorns for the entire field work. Thank you so much! I am deeply grateful to my precious daughters Josephine and Mwasi for their calmness as they missed my love and care during my absence. Lastly but not least, I am indebted to my father the late Rev. Yoram Jonathan Kavana and my mother Josephine Nehemia Baruti who laid a foundation for me to adore education. May God bless abundantly all people who helped me in my endeavour to climb an academic ladder!
The ecology of large herbivores in the Miombo woodlands of South East Tanzania
(The University of of Nairobi, 1979) Rodgers, William Alan
The studies described in this thesis arose from an ecological survey of part of the eastern side of the Selous Game Reserve in south east Tanzania from 1967 to 1975* The intensive study area contained two major, ecologically distinct, habitats, an area of tall grass miombo woodlahd and a smaller area of short grass scattered tree grassland. Several species of large grazing ungulate utilised thefce habitats, namely: buffalo, hartebeest, impala, sable, warthog, wildebeest and zebra* Seasonal changes in the environment such as the six month drought and widespread annual fires affect the pattern of habitat utilisation exhibited by each species. This thesis examines such utilisation and shows that each species has developed its own ecological and feeding strategies in order to maximise nutrient inputs and reproductive success in what is seasonally a harsh environment In many ways the miombo (Brachystegia) woodlands remain the least studied of the East African habitats This lack of data on the miombo in general and the Selous Game Reserve in particular means much of the thesis is taken up by descriptions of the physical and biotic environment of the study area. Following an introductory chapter the thesis is divided into three parts. Part one, with three chapters, describes the physical environment: geology, soil, climate, water and prehistory; the vegetation: community description, distribution and species composition, floristics and vegetation dynamics; and range factors of productivity and forage nutrient content Part two contains chapters on animal numbers, distribution patterns, feeding and nutrition and a chapter examining growth and reproduction as indices of population performance Part three concludes the thesis with a chapter reviewing the miombo woodlands and the Selous as a wildlife habitat and a final chapter discussing management policy for the Selous Game Reserve. The study area is low lying (100 - 700m asl) with a single rainy season from late November to early May (average 760mm p.a.) Despite a long hot dry season, surface water is relatively plentiful Habitat distribution is primarily controlled by geology and soil type with major modifications by fires and past human activity. The upland Karoo and post karoo sandstones give rise to infertile acidic red sandy soils which carry a climax-thicket formation These have been degraded into woodland by fire and settlement activity Lower down the drainage slope the flat Pleistocene river terrace of grits and sands has produced a hard alkaline sodic soil carrying short grass scattered tree grassland The drainage sump of recent alluvial clay carries tall floodplain grasses The vegetation is diverse, collections to date totalling over 1200 vascular plants including 150 grass species. The woodland vegetation shows strong affinities to the Zambezian flora,and the thicket, riverine and alkaline communities show affinities to the East African coastal flora o The thesis contains species lists and a vegetation community map. Fire has opened up the thickets producing tall grass woodlands of various types. Grasses, mainly Andropogonae, are coarse tussock perennials with very low nutritive values when dry* No burning allows the spread of woody and climbing species which engulf the grass layer and rapidly reduce grazing values* Late dry season fires reduce woody elements and plant diversities and leave coarse grass growth thoughout the dry season* Cooler early dry season fires maintain mixed woodland communities and a mixture of grass species and, where water tables allow, rapidly produce a flush of nutritious regenerating grass growth* Crude protein content of such growth can reach 20% although standing crop is low* The alkaline soils carry a short grass sward of mixed annual perennial species of high nutritive values in the rains* There is no flush after burning and dry season grazing values are low* Chapter 5 discusses techniques of animal census in detail* A vehicular ground sample census using fixed systematically placed transects was used for common ungulates* Rainy season densities on the short grass habitats are as follows: Impala 28*7/km2, wildebeest 27,2/km2, zebra l6*2/km^ and warthog 9*4/km2# Wildebeest and impala densities have remained unchanged for six years, zebra and warthog densities have increased significantly* Less detailed data are given for other species* Distribution data have been collected at several different scales from Tanzania wide, to the Selous, to the study area, to the different facets of a miombo valley-ridge catenary system* It is ‘shewn that 'salile *nd'‘L±ch’fcnrteins .'S* : ns hartebeest are restricted to tall grass woodland habitats, wildebeest and impala must have access to short grass areas in the rains and that buffalo, zebra and warthog, are more habitat tolerant but achieve higher densities on short grass habitats . Within the study area virtually all impala, warthog, wildebeest and zebra concentrate on the short grass areas in the rains, moving into the woodlands following the onset of burning Within the woodland habitat wildebeest and impala concentrate on the green flush of the valleys and avoid the unburnt areas and ridge tops. Sable and hartebeest are distributed throughout all categories and warthog and zebra are intermediate showing some selection of valley and green areas The onset of the November rains signals a return to the short grasslands Studies of feeding behaviour showed buffalo, hartebeest and wildebeest to be total grazers whilst sable and impala took significant proportions of browse in the dry season and warthog diet changed to perennial monocot roots and rhizomes. Feeding studies concentrated on wildebeest and impala and much data was obtained from post morterm analysis. By assuming that extrapolation of data from other large ungulate studies was unlikely to cause large relative errors it was possible to make estimates of protein and energy intakes and of theoretical nutrient needs for these two species. the rainy season both species had inputs greater than During theoretical requirements for maintenance, i e i positive nutritional balance. they were in As the dry season progressed T both male and female wildebeest which remained on the dry short grass habit entered a period of negative nutritional balance• However wildebeest moving to fresh flush in the woodlands were shown (albeit on less evidence) to maintain a positive balance. Impala at the onset of the dry season changed their diet to nutrient rich browse components and so maintained a positive nutritional balance. These two ! strategies of habitat change and dietary change have resulted in peak nutritional inputs at different times of year. Impala have peak inputs in September and wildebeest in i December periods. Onset of parturition coincides with these peak The nutritional load of gestation is minimal compared to that of lactation. Calving season therefore allows lactation and wearing of calves at the nutritional optimum time of year. Other species show different strategies, which allow a separation of niche space reducing competition for food resources Chapter eight shows that individual growth rate, body condition and fecundity rates are as high or higher than other populations in Africa., and that populations here are well adapted to the ecological conditions of this part of the Selous Game Reserve. This chapter discusses why the wildebeest population is stationary when nutrition is adequate, condition is good and fecundity is high. Predation by lion is put forward as a major limiting factor* The concluding chapters look at the miombo woodlands throughout Africa as wildlife reserves and suggest that only when tall grass woodlands are adjacent to other habitats such as short grassland or floodplains do animal densities reach levels high enough to warrant major conservation inputs* The importance of fire in providing dry season graze is stressed and fire management polices for the Selous are discussed* Past, present and future human impacts on the wilderness values of the Selous are examined and a plea is made for definite land use policy statements for south east Tanzania and the reserve*
Spatio-temporal dynamics of land use and land cover, wildlife habitats and populations in the greater Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2021) Kija, Hamza Khalid
Land use and land cover (LULC) change is a common phenomenon and of great concern to conservation in many terrestrial ecosystems, including the Serengeti Ecosystem (SE) in Tanzania. LULC changes can pose profound impacts on wildlife habitats, abundance and spatio-temporal distribution of wildlife species. This situation needs close monitoring, as it is not clearly known how the future ecological conditions of the ecosystem might be, if these changes remain unchecked. Previous studies on LULC changes, drivers, wildlife habitats and species distributions in the ecosystem are fragmented, focused either on specific habitat types or only on predicting spatial distribution and habitat suitability for particular wildlife species inside the protected areas (PAs). The above-mentioned studies provided limited information on the long-term prediction, imposing difficulties to infer the causes of wildlife populations fluctuation and observed changes in distribution pattern. Knowledge of dynamics of LULC and habitats quality, and the drivers of change is imperative for maintaining healthy wildlife populations and ecosystems integrity. In lieu of this, therefore, the study aimed to carry out a spatio-temporal dyamics of LULC, wildlife habitats and populations in the SE (1975-2015). Specifically, the study sought to: i) characterize LULC change; ii) assess drivers of LULC changes; iii) assess quality of wildlife habitat; and (iv) determine the dynamics of herbivore distribution and habitat selection. For objective one, the random forest classification algorithm was employed to classify the Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Thematic Mapper (TM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (+ETM) and Operational Land Imager (OLI) was used to characterize LULC into eightiii main classes and extracted quantitative data for assessing the corresponding changes during 1975-1995, 1995-2015 and 1975-2015. For objective two, LULC data for 1995 and 2015 derived from Landsat imageries (objective 1), and nine predictors of change (human population density, precipitation, distance from rivers, soil moisture, fire frequency, distance from roads, elevation, slope and elephant density) were used to ascertain their negative and positive influence for the changes using Binomial Logistic Regression. Drivers of change in LULC, have implications for wildlife habitat quality and spatio-temporal dynamics of wildlife species, therefore, for objective three, we mapped and evaluated changes in habitat quality (1975– 2015) using the Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model, whereas, in objective four, Bonferroni confidence interval, with the Chi-square goodness-of-fit test and kernel density were used to assess herbivores habitat selection and distribution for browsers (grant’s gazelles and giraffe), grazers (wildebeest, zebra and buffalo) and mixed feeders (impala and elephant). Results revealed that grassland, shrubland and woodland were the major LULC types throughout 1975-2015 with percentage coverages of 50.6%, 23.7% and 20.9% for 1975; 54.2%, 23.5% and 15.9% for 1995; and 57.0%, 23.8% and 8.9% for 2015. Woodland cover (-11.1%) was the most converted to other cover types during 1975-2015. Overall habitat quality declined over time (1975–2015) in unprotected and human-dominated areas surrounding the ecosystem, intermediate deterioration rates in less heavily PAs (Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), Game Controlled Area (GCA), Game Reserves (GRs) and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) and the least rate in the most heavily protected Serengeti National Park. Significant clustered distribution pattern was observed for alliv herbivores across space and time, with contracted distribution ranges for browsers and an expanded one for grazers and mixed feeders for 2015 in comparison to 1995. The obtained information on species distribution, habitat selection and use are useful in determining high priority areas for effective conservation practices. Generally, increasing human population size, agriculture, settlements and policy changes, fires and elephant browsing pressure are central to LULC and habitats quality dynamics in the ecosystem. The study recommends a more protection effort to halter LULC changes and habitats degradations in order to enhance quality habitat conditions for both browsers and grazers in the ecosystem. For less PAs (e.g. WMAs and GCA) improvement strategies are needed to strengthen conservation and management practices. Effective management of the key drivers of LULC and habitats change in the SE are of paramount importance. Wet and dry season herbivores coverage is needed to examine species guild’s spatio-temporal changes.
Impacts of recreational infrastructure on rodent communities and their associated haemoparasites in Serengeti national park, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Bupamba, Happiness C.; Bupamba, Happiness Charles
Rodents are a vital component of ecosystems influencing various ecological aspects such as community structure, stability, and diversity. However, they are very sensitive to environmental change, thus act as indicators of environmental suitability in their respective ecosystems. Rodents’ haemoparasites are zoonotic and have great potential of causing rodent borne diseases when transmitted to humans. Recreational infrastructures constructed in protected areas to support leisure and recreation activities for tourists, may disrupt the natural environment of rodents and influence dynamism in their communities and associated haemoparasites, an may lead to transmission of these haemoparasites to the human communities. Capture- Mark- Release was used to collect data in Serengeti National Park to assess the effects of recreational infrastructure on rodent communities and their associated haemoparasites. Four transect lines of 100 meters; set 10 meters apart were used for setting traps in selected trapping sites; and capillary tubes were used to collect blood samples for assessment of prevalence of haemoparasites. A total of 128 rodents belonging to 9 species were captured, of which Mastomys natalensis was the dominant species (53.1%). Generally, areas with less active infrastructure had more diverse community, but lower breeding pattern. Bacillus spp was the only haemoparasite observed to prevail in 24% of all captured rodents, with higher prevalence in adult males. The study concludes that different recreational infrastructure with regards to visitors’ occupancy do not affect rodent communities in their natural environment; rather the dynamism in rodent communities are influenced by the nature of the habitat and environment surrounding the infrastructure. Thus, we recommend that more detailed studies should be done in relation to potential agents of diseases within PAs. This would help in understanding if there are potential risks to tourists and wildlife, and solving them before any outbreak occurs, as the two communities have been found to interact.
Socio-economic and conservation effects of banning live wild animals trade: the case of communities bordering Nilo nature forest reserve, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Saidi, Abdallah Selemani
The Live Wild Animals Trade Ban (LWATB) has been imposed temporarily by the Tanzania government since March 2016. The ban implied a national revenue loss of about 1.83 billion Tanzanian Shillings (TZS) per year. One among the reasons for such a ban was a breach of the Wildlife Conservation Act (WCA) No. 5 of 2009 by some of the actors. Subsequently, the government has been thinking of imposing a total ban. However, the social-economic and conservation effects of the ban on the communities are not well known. This study was conducted in the villages found adjacent to the Nilo Nature Forest Reserve (NNFR) in the East Usambara Mountains. The objectives were to ascertain the effects of LWATB on income, poaching, and communities’ coping mechanisms post LWATB. Household questionnaires and key informant interviews were used for data collection. Both inferential and descriptive statistical analyses were conducted. Findings revealed that the LWAT contributed TZS 709 057 400/= of the total income to local communities, whereas other Income Generating Activities (IGAs) contributed TZS 192 455 000/= yearly. This showed a significant difference between the income earned from LWAT and other IGAs (t=21.455, p < 0.05) before the ban. Furthermore, the ban has contributed to decreasing poaching incidences by 38.4%. These results commensurate with secondary data that showed that there was statistically significant difference on poaching incidences before and after the ban (z = -2.938, P < 0.05). Moreover, 98% of respondents who were engaging in the trade before the ban have shifted to the other IGAs. Ultimately, LWATB has negative impacts to the income of the local communities and positive impacts on conservation through reducing income and poaching incidences after LWATB by 78.7% and 38.4% respectively. Therefore, it is recommended that the government should uplift the ban on non-threatened species and facilitate local communities to conduct their activities sustainably.

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