Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Erratic weather condition and its implications for household food production: farmers perceptions in Moshi District
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Kundy, Florence Callist
Farmers in Moshi District prioritize drought as their major productivity-reducing problem, while scientists identify soil degradation as a major threat. The question that needs to be addressed is how farmers perceive drought. Insight into farmers’ perceptions of drought could be the missing link towards increased and sustainable production. During October 2010 and February 2011, a study was conducted in Kilimanjaro Region Moshi District, at Kirua Vunjo West and Kirua Vunjo South Wards, in the villages of Mabungo, Uchira, Uparo, Iwa, Kwamare and Nduoni in Moshi. The study included questionnaires with mainly open-ended questions (n=120) and in-depth interviews with farmers and extension workers. Collected data were analysed using various methods including; Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 16) software (SPSS, 2006), Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) were used with regards to the distribution of the adequacy responses and Likert-scale was used in soliciting attitude of farmers. Farmers saw drought in a broader perspective than that of deficient rainfall. Drought indicators were area specific. Farmers recognized differences in drought vulnerability between soil types, location and state of land, land management practices and farmer types. Drought risk was perceived to have increased. Farmers' perceptions can be related to the scientific concept of agricultural drought. Since the amount of rainfall cannot be influenced, the efficiency of the rains can be a focal point for addressing farmers’ concerns about drought. Any viable strategy to reduce farmers’ vulnerability to drought and to improve productivity should be integrated into farmers’ existing strategies to adapt to and cope with ecological insecurity.
Influence of school food environment on eating behaviours and nutritional status of primary school children (6-13 years) in Dodoma
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Kilandeka, Vivian Richard
Malnutrition among school-aged children has significant consequences for their health, cognitive development, and overall educational achievement. Rapid shifts in the availability and affordability of less nutritious foods in food environments have contributed to the dual challenges of malnutrition. There is growing global interest in understanding how food environments contribute to this double burden of malnutrition. This study aimed to assess the impact of the school food environment on the eating habits and nutritional well-being of primary school children aged 6 to 13 years in Dodoma region. Specific objectives were first: to evaluate the nutritional status of school-age children and examine how socio- economic, demographic, and environmental factors influence their nutritional well-being; second, to investigate how the school food environments affect the eating behaviours of primary school children in both public and private schools in Dodoma region. A cross- sectional study involving 248 pupils was conducted in eight primary schools in Dodoma region. Four schools were chosen from Chamwino district (a rural setting), including two public and two private schools. The other four schools were located in Dodoma urban district (an urban setting), comprising of two government schools and two private schools. The study also involved eight head teachers and eight health/food teachers, who were purposefully selected from the eight participating primary schools. Anthropometric measurements were made following the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines to assess stunting, thinness, underweight, and overweight/obesity. Socio-demographic data were collected from pupils using structured questionnaires. School administrators, including head teachers and health/food teachers, provided information on the physical, political, and socio-cultural aspects of the school food environment. Data on eating behaviours were obtained through structured questionnaires and food frequency questionnaires to assess students' dietary patterns over a period of seven days. Additionally, an observation checklist was used to gather information on the availability and accessibility of foods consumed by the school children. Data analysis was performed by using the WHO AnthroPlus v1.0.4 software and IBM SPSS Statistics 26v. Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and percentages, were calculated. Regression models were used to explore the determinants of nutritional status, reporting both crude (COR) and adjusted odds ratios (AOR). Multilevel modeling was employed to assess individual-level variance in eating behaviours and examine the association between the school food environment and dietary behaviours of children. Prevalence rates among surveyed pupils were as follows: stunting (10.5%), underweight (3.6%), thinness (2.8%), and overweight/obesity (10.1%). Stunting was more common in boys (13.2%) than in girls (8.2%), and it increased with age. Underweight was higher in public schools (8.2%) than in private schools (3.2%). Thinness was more prevalent in public schools (85.7%) than in private schools (14.3%), particularly in rural areas (57.1%) and among younger children (aged 6-9 years, 57.1%). Overweight/obesity was more common among girls (90.1%) than boys. Urban schools had a higher prevalence of overweight/obesity (90.3%) compared to rural schools (89.5%), and private schools had a higher prevalence (95.2%) than public schools (84.7%). Pupils in urban areas were more likely to be overweight/obese than those in rural settings. After adjusting for student characteristics, the school environment accounted for a small proportion of the variance in eating behaviours, ranging from 11.3% to 11.6% for carbohydrate- rich foods, 12.6% to 11.4% for protein-rich foods, 20.3% to 19.4% for vitamins and mineral-rich foods, and 11.0% to 10.1% for lipids and sugar-rich foods. In model 2, controlling for other factors, protein-rich and lipid and sugar-rich foods intake were significantly related to the death of a parent, while vitamins and mineral-rich foods intake were significantly related to the number of adults in the household. None of the investigated school food environmental factors were associated with the children's reported intake of carbohydrate-rich foods, protein-rich foods, vitamin and mineral-rich foods, or lipids and sugar-rich foods. These findings suggested that,
Satisfaction and compliance to recommended management practices among type 2 diabetes patients in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Bofu, Hasna R.
The prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus has been increasing primarily due to the rising of risk factors such as sedentary lifestyles and unhealthy eating habits, resulting to overweight and obesity. Diabetes- related complications are the major causes of morbidity and mortality among people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Changes in lifestyles and dietary patterns are essential for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus, including regular physical exercises, smoking cessation, weight management, and diet control, which help to mitigate the long- term effects of diabetes. Patient counseling has been identified as an important means to enhance patients' knowledge about risk factors, lifestyle modifications, and diabetes-related complications, which can influence adherence to recommended management practices. Little is known on counselling practices, satisfaction of diabetes related health care services received and adherence to recommended prevention and management practices among type 2 diabetes patients. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate counseling practices, challenges and satisfaction with the services provided among type 2 diabetes patients. It also assessed compliance to recommended management practices for prevention and management of the disease related complications in selected health facilities in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania. A hospital- based cross-sectional study was conducted from February to May 2023 among 140 patients, including those diagnosed with type 2 diabetes for at least 3 months and receiving healthcare services in selected diabetes clinics. Two health facilities with diabetes clinics which are Sabasaba Health Centre and Morogoro Regional Referral Hospital, were purposively selected to represent public health facilities with diabetes clinics. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire that included patients' characteristics. Additionally, a previously validated Summary of Diabetes Self-care Activities questionnaire was used to assess patients' compliance with recommended prevention and management practices, and a Diabetes Clinic Satisfaction Questionnaire was used to assess services satisfaction. Data were analysed using Statistical Package for Service Solutions, version 25. Descriptive statistics and appropriate significance tests such as mean, frequencies, percent and standard deviations (SD) were obtained. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was employed to identify factors influencing services satisfaction and those that are associated with compliance with recommended prevention and management practices. The study commenced after receiving ethical approval from National Health Research Committee of the National Institute for Medical Research. Permission to conduct this study was also sought from the President's Office Regional Authority and Local Government, as well as the respective regional, district, and health facility authorities. The mean age of the respondents was 59±12 years, with 65% (n=91) being females, and 62% (n=87) having completed primary-level education. Almost all respondents 96% (n=135) acknowledged receiving advice on medication and healthy diet. Advice on adopting a healthy lifestyle was not mandatory, with approximately one in four respondents never having received counseling on either alcohol intake or tobacco use. Nearly half of the respondents (49%, n=68) expressed satisfaction with the services offered. There was a significant association between patient satisfaction and the duration of living with type 2 diabetes mellitus (AOR 2.2, 95% CI: 1.1-4.4), marital status (AOR 2.1, 95% CI: 1.2-4.8), and waiting time to receive services in the healthy facility (AOR 0.76, 95% CI: 0.6-0.9). Diabetes services were mostly limited to large patient-load and shortage of trained healthcare providers, private space and time, as well as lack of guidelines and protocol for counseling. Findings also revealed that among the 140 patients, 91.4% (n=128) exhibited poor or unsatisfactory self-care practices, with an overall mean of 3.81±2.08 days per week for diabetes management. Self-care practices with good or satisfactory performance included non-smoking, not drinking alcohol, and using prescribed medication, while unsatisfactory performance was observed on the practices of self-monitoring of blood glucose and physical activity. Multiple regression analysis indicated that having co-morbidities (AOR 4.5, 95% CI: 1.14-18.02) and being employed (AOR 4.4, 95% CI: 1.25-15.44) were independently predictive of adherence to self-care practices. Generally, this study shows moderate satisfaction with counseling practices and services, as well as poor compliance to recommended prevention for complications and management practices. Self-monitoring of blood glucose, physical exercise, and dietary practices were the least practiced aspects, which could potentially increase the risk of complications among patients with type 2 diabetes. The government through the Ministry of Health and other stakeholders should ensure the formulation of clear protocol and guidelines for counseling and diabetes prevention and management. It is further suggested that recommended practices should be integrated into existing healthcare systems to ensure that they become a routine part of care.
Behavioural determinants influencing the purchase of imported and locally made apparel among consumers in Dar es salaam, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Kereth, Gudila Ancelm
Behavioural determinants; namely cultural, social, personal, psychological and demographics influence consumers apparel purchase. However, there is scarce information about behavioural determinants and purchase of apparel among consumers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Hence, this study needs to explore the behavioural determinants influencing the purchase of imported and locally made apparel among consumers in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. The objectives of this study were: identifying the consumer demographic determinants that influence purchase of imported and locally made apparel; establishing the consumer purchase of imported and locally made apparel and examining the influence of behavioural determinants on the choice of apparel, choice of shopping outlets, quantity, apparel expenditure, frequency to purchase apparel and a model for behavioural determinants. The study adopted a cross-sectional analytical design. It involved a sampled population of 422 respondents (206 males and 216 females) aged above 18 years. Purposive sampling was used to select shopping outlets, while a systematic random sampling was used to select consumers for interview at the main outlets. Primary data were collected using a questionnaire and an interview schedule. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square, logistic regression and multiple linear regression while qualitative data were analysed based on themes and sub themes of the related variables. The results showed that 88.1% of the respondents purchased imported apparel of which 53.3% purchased apparel from second-hand apparel markets. The findings revealed that males were 1.693 less likely to purchase locally made apparel than females (/?=0.001). Respondents aged 18-25 ( jj -Q.OQ 1), 26-35 (p=0.018) and 36-45 (p=0.004) were less likely to purchase locally made apparel compared to respondents aged above 56 years. Moreover, respondents with Secondary (p=0.004), Certificate and Diploma (/?=0.029) education were less likely to purchase imported apparel compared to respondents with Bachelor degrees. The findings also revealed that 45% of behavioural determinants influenced respondents to purchase apparel. Cultural beliefs, social values, ethical and religious values, social status, social media, apparel loyalty, self-concept, perception and respondents' lifestyle were significant led respondents to purchase apparel. Cultural determinants were significant and less likely influenced respondents to go to shopping malls, second-hand apparel markets, boutiques and apparel shops to purchase apparel. Social, personal and psychological determinants significantly influenced respondents to choose shopping malls, apparel shops and second-hand markets to purchase apparel. Behavioural detenninants significantly influenced respondents on the quantity, apparel expenditure and the frequency of purchase of apparel (/?<0.05). A model for behavioural determinants was developed based on demographics, cultural, social, personal and psychological variables to provide insight towards the purchase of apparel. The study recommends that retailers should study the apparel market and supply apparel based on consumers' preferences. It is suggested that the government should set a policy intended to promote locally made apparel to public sectors, parastatal organisations and other NGOs to to wear on every Friday of the working day and on the national public events.
Food marketing strategies and prevalence of overweight and obesity among primary school children in Morogoro region, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2023) Muhomba E. S
World Health Organization (2018) defines overweight and obesity as “abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health’’. Recent reports show that the number of overweight and obese children worldwide has risen tenfold in the past four decades and if the current trends continue, more children will be obese than the moderately or severely underweight. This trend is rising with urbanization, changes in lifestyles and social economic transition. This study examined food marketing strategies and prevalence and determinants of overweight and obesity among school children of age 7-12 years old in urban and rural areas of Morogoro region, Tanzania. The specific objectives were to determine the prevalence and determinants of overweight and obesity among school children and to identify marketing and promotion strategies used by food vendors in school environment. A cross sectional study was conducted to a total of 335 parent/caregiver- child pairs, of whom 165 were from Kilosa (rural) and 170 from Morogoro (urban) districts. The main sampling unit was registered primary schools which were stratified according to ownership, whether private or government, and sampled separately. A total of four private and four public schools were sampled, two from each of the categories in each of the locations. The study also involved 32 food outlets that were purposively selected from the eight selected primary schools based on kind of foods sold. Weight and height were measured using standard procedures and Body Mass Index (BMI) for age was determined. Socio-demographic information was collected from parents using structured questions. Information on food marketing and promotion strategies were collected from food vendors through questionnaire and data for food availability and factors influencing purchasing behavior were obtained from the children through structured questions. Available foods were categorized into four groups that include; unprocessed or minimally processed foods, processed culinary ingredient, processed foods and ultra-processed foods. In addition, observation checklist was used to collect information on food availability, marketing and promotion strategies used by food vendors. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSSTM) version 21 software; whereby descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentage were calculated and a regression model was used to explore the determinants of overweight and obesity in which both crude (COR) and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) were reported. Chi-square test was used to test significant difference between foods available in rural and urban school environment. The study commenced after receiving ethical approval from the National Institute for Medical Research and from Sokoine University of Agriculture. Permission to conduct the study was also sought from the Regional Administrative Officer, the respective District Executive Officers and the head teachers of the selected schools. The results showed that age of the studied children ranged from 7 to 12 years, while those of the parents/caregivers ranged from 18 to 72 years. About 19% (n=63) of the school children were overweight or obese, while 3.9% (n=13) were underweight. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was higher among private school students than those in public schools 24.8% (n=36) vs 14.2% (n=27) and more or less similar prevalence were observed among rural (17.6%, n=34) and urban (20.0%, n=29) areas. In a multivariate analysis, eating breakfast before going to school was associated with overweight and obesity (AOR 2.23, 95% CI: 1.06-4.68). Other factors associated with overweight and obesity were school type (AOR 1.19, 95% CI: 1.55-2.60), household daily income (AOR 1.88, 95% CI: 1.68-3.15) , and provided with money to spend at school (AOR 2.89, 95% CI: 1.76-4.11). On the other hand, the findings for marketing and promotion strategies used by food vendors in school environment revealed that there was higher proportion of processed or deep fried foods such as potato balls, cowpea and rice cakes, samosa, and bans in rural areas (60%) compared to urban areas (40%). There was also higher proportion of ultra- processed foods such as carbonated soft drinks, cookies, candies, chocolate and ice lollies in urban areas (60.8%) compared to rural areas (39.2%). The most consumed and purchased foods around schools were corn snacks (chama), potato balls, carbonated soft drinks, sweet ice-lollies, candies, chocolates and ice cream. The most common marketing and promotion strategies used around schools were posters, price reduction and packaging. Feeling hungry, food price, environment and peer pressure were the factors contributing to purchasing behavior for foods sold around the school premises. Generally, the prevalence of overweight and obesity among primary school children in Morogoro region was high particularly among children enrolled in private primary schools. Household daily income, provision of breakfast before going to school and being given money to spend at school were the determinants of overweight and obesity. Ultra-processed foods were available in urban and rural schools. Marketing and promotion strategies exist in both rural and urban areas where the commonly marketed foods were carbonated soft drinks, candies, corn snacks (chama), potatoes balls and ice cream. Monitoring of children’s nutrition status in schools is very crucial so as to build the foundation for healthy future generation. Therefore, the government should ensure provision of school meals and monitoring of foods sold around the schools. Also children should be provided with nutrition education to make sure that they are aware of healthy food choices.
Nutrition governance and accountability in implementing nutrition services in Morogoro Urban And Rural District Councils, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2023-04) Kawishe Ester C.
Background: Nutrition governance and accountability have gained importance in Tanzania and the rest of Africa as a result of strong initiatives to end all forms of malnutrition by 2030. This study aimed at assessing nutrition governance and accountability in the implementation of nutrition services. Methodology: The assessment was based on nutrition budget planning and spending, coordination of nutrition through the meetings of Council Multisectoral Steering Committee on Nutrition (CMSCN) and Development Committee at Ward and Village/Mtaa levels. The assessment also looked at the way in which nutrition data and information were collected, accessed and used in informing policy implementation. The study was conducted in Morogoro Municipal Council (urban) and Morogoro District Council (rural) within Morogoro region in Tanzania. A total of 140 respondents were reached, who were the members CMSCN and development committee at ward and village/ mtaa. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using semi-structured questionnaires. Other method of getting data included observation and documents review. Data analysis involved mainly qualitative approach such as the content analysis. Information sought from the respondents included their opinions and understanding of nutrition in budgeting, information sharing for accountability and planning. Results: It has been found out that adherence to nutrition budgeting guideline of allocating 1000 Tanzania shillings per every child below the age of five years was low in Morogoro District Council (rural) in comparison to Morogoro Municipal Council (urban). Possible reasons could be the relatively lower revenue collection as well as lack of accountability, commitment and knowledge of consequences of poor nutrition. Moreover, coordination of nutrition based on the terms of reference that were set by the President’s Office-Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG) in 2018 was not adhered fully at all levels, but the situation was worse at sub-ward level (Village and Mtaa). The collection and use of nutrition information was faced with failure in capturing data of some crucial nutrition indicators. Also, the recorded data in some cases was not reflecting the actual situation, while the available data was not accessed easily and therefore not been able to utilize the nutrition information effectively to inform policy making and decision making. Conclusion: Nutrition governance and accountability through nutrition budgeting, coordination and use of nutrition information for informing policy implementation at council and sub-council levels are still facing a number of challenges related with low nutrition budget spending especially at the Morogoro District Council, probably caused by low prioritization of nutrition and low understanding of nutrition issues. Coordination of nutrition at council and sub-council levels need to be strengthened for abidance to the guidelines provided by PO-RALG. Similarly, collection and management of nutrition data and information at the council and sub-council levels need to be strengthened to be well informing to the policy makers and for development planning. For improvement of nutrition governance and accountability, the central government, Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC), local government authority and other nutrition stakeholders have to increase the investment in nutrition.
The effect of local cassava processing methods on nutritional and sensory attributes of cassava flour: a case study of Newala district
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2007) Majaliwa, Nuria
A study was carried out in Newala District to investigate the effect of different local cassava processing methods on cyanogenic glucosides level, nutrient retention and colour of cassava flour. Specifically the study was aimed at identifying different local cassava processing methods, examining the effect of local processing methods on residual cyanogenic glucosides in the cassava flours, examining the effect of local processing methods on nutrient retention and color of cassava flour and study the cassava processing and production constraints in the study area. In each study site, information was obtained by focus group discussion, structured questionnaire from 40 households in each village. Samples were collected for laboratory analysis. Results showed high total residual cyanogen levels of about (790 ± 107 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) and (263 ± 71 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) in flour obtained from both small-size and large-size niakopa respectively. Cyanohydrin levels were higher (39 ± 5 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) in Chinyanya compared to levels of about (7 ± 2 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) in the flour from large size makopa. Chinyanya showed to contain (75 g/1OOg, starch, 1.3 g/1OOg protein, 32.8 g/1OOg vitamin C, 18.7 g/1OOg moisture and 13.22 pH, Makopa showed to contain 80.0 g/1OOg starch, 2.72 g/1OOg protein, 24.52 g/1OOg vitamin C, 12.5 g/1OOg moisture, at pH 10.28 where as fermented root showed to contain 65.2 g/1OOg starch, 0.75 g/1OOg protein, 15.4 g/1OOg vitamin C, 13.7 g/1OOg moisture, pH 5.25). These findings confirmed that direct sun-drying of cassava roots is an ineffective method for removal of cyanogenic glucosides as it yields products with relatively high residual levels of cyanogenic glucosides while fermentation of cassava root is an effective method in removal of total glucosides. Apart from colour preference, this study concluded that although wet fermentation showed high nutrient loss, from the health point of view it is an effective way of reducing cynogenic glucosides level from cassava root, which are dangerous for human health.
Processing of cassava, residual cyanogens and mycotoxin content in traditionally processed cassava products
(The University of Reading, 1998-04) Muzanila, Yasinta C.
Cassava samples from some villages in Tanzania processed by wet fermentation, solid state fermentation and sun drying were analysed for residual cyanogens and presence of mycotoxins. Cassava samples (bitter varieties) processed by wet and solid- concluded that wet fermentation is very effective in reducing cyanogens in cassava. No mycotoxins (aflatoxins ) were detected in cassava samples. The chemical composition of these cassava samples was also determined. Wet fermentation showed lower content of vitamin C, reducing sugars and protein compared to samples processed by solid state fermentation and sun drying. In another experiment, cassava flakes were produced on a drum drier using varying pre cooking temperatures and drum speeds. Pre-cooking conditions were: no pre-cooking, pre-cooking at 75°C for 35 minutes and 100°C for 5 minutes. The drum speeds used were 11.5 and 14.0 r.p.m. which correspond to 4.0 and 3.4 seconds drying time respectively. The flakes were analysed for vitamin C, moisture, free starch, reducing sugars and protein content. Pre-cooking conditions affected vitamin C, moisture and free starch content while Hmm speed affected only the moisture content of the flakes. Prolonged pre-cooking time caused losses in vitamin C while pre-cooking at the higher temperature increased free starch content of the flakes. The moisture content increased with increasing drum speed. The soluble amylose test showed that starch retrogradation occurs when cassava is cooled after the pre-cooking stage. The textural characteristics of reconstituted mash from the flakes was analysed using the Texture Analyser, after adding emulsifiers (stearate monoglyceride, sodium caseinate and skim milk powder). Results from Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) (adhesiveness), tests showed that stearate monoglyceride Back extrusion and sensory evaluation emulsifier reduces the stickiness of reconstituted cassava flakes mash. The Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) thermograms indicated the formation of an amylose monoglyceride complex. Cassava samples with stearate monoglyceride had low water absorption capacity and high bulk density. Also sample with stearate monoglyceride had low viscosity according to the results from the Brabender amylograph tests. Samples of cassava flakes and reconstituted mash with skim milk powder and sodium caseinate were darker in colour compared to those with stearate monoglyceride according to the results from both instrumental (Hunter Lab spectrophotometer) and sensory tests.
Soybean cultivars milk yield and relative acceptability of their flavoured soy-milk
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2008) Msasalaga, Lazaro Henry
The objectives of this work were to study soybean cultivars milk yield and the acceptability of their flavoured soymilk. Whole soybeans varieties (TGX 1895-49F, TGX 1876-4E and TGX 1895-33F) were analysed for proximate composition, selected micronutrients and milk yield. The whole soybeans protein contents, with iron contents in brackets, for TGX 1895-33F, TGX 1876-4E and TGX 1895-49F were 43.998% (6.953 mg/100 g), 37.015% (19.670 mg/100 g) and 33.825% (10.580 mg/100 g) on dry matter basis respectively. Similarly the milk from the three varieties was analysed for proximate composition and selected micronutrients including P-carotene. The respective percentage milk yield for varieties TGX 1895-33F, TGX 1895-49F and TGX 1895-4E were 66.516, 66.063 and 56.122. These were found to be significantly different. The soymilk protein contents, with iron contents in brackets, for TGX 1895-33F, TGX 1876-4E and TGX 1895- 49F were 4.499%w/v (9.569±1.868 g/100 g), 3.516%w/v (4.755±0.147 mg/100 g) and 4.271%w/v (4.072±0.057 mg/100 g) respectively. These together with moisture, oil, fibre, carbohydrates, ash and P-carotene were found to be significantly different. It was observed that the variety that contained the highest amount of protein had the highest iron and P-carotene. There was no significant difference among samples in calcium, zinc and copper content. Energy content for each of the three varieties was calculated. The milk yield, proximate and micronutrient data were ranked using Excel software to identify two suitable cultivars for efficient production of soymilk. The primary, secondary and tertiary selection criteria were milk yield, protein content and iron content respectively. After ranking, the milk from the two varieties (TGX 1895-33F and TGX 1895-49F) was fortified with three flavouring agents (vanilla, banana and pineapple) each at three levels i.e. 0, 0.015% and 0.030% with the 0 level serving as a control. Fortified products were assessed for colour, taste, aroma, mouth feel and overall acceptability on a 5 point hedonic scale. Sensory evaluation results showed that of the three artificial flavours, pineapple flavour was the most effective compared with vanilla and banana flavour. The effectiveness was found significant (p<0.05) on the aroma and overall acceptability of soymilk with scores increasing with increasing level. Effectiveness was non significant (p>0.05) for colour, taste, and mouth feel. However, general comments were made by most panellists on the addition of sugar to improve taste. It was concluded in this study that TGX 1895-33F is the most effective cultivar for efficient production of soymilk and pineapple flavour being the most acceptable flavouring agent for soymilk.
The role of social capital in coping with household food insecurity in urban areas of Tanzania: the case of Dar es Salaam and Morogoro municipality
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2003) Sango, Danford
This study was conducted to investigate the role played by social capital in coping with household food insecurity in urban areas of Tanzania. The study entailed surveys conducted in Dar es salaam city and Morogoro municipality. Specifically the study had four objectives namely (a) to identify the various coping options related to social capital that are commonly adopted by households in the study area to contend with food insecurity (b) to determine the characteristics of social capital arrangements which are relevant to household food security (c) to determine the extent to which social capital reduces household food insecurity vulnerability and (d) to determine the effects of household stock of social capital on household income. The study is based on a survey of 180 households. Proportionate stratified random sampling technique was used to select respondents across all income levels in the study area. The data were coded and analysed with the aid of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer programme. Data analysis entailed a number of descriptive statistics including frequencies, cross tabulations and chi-square tests. However, regression analysis was the major parametric test employed. The regression analysis made use of, first, a multiple linear regression model aimed at testing the effect of social capital on household income and, second, a logistic regression model which tested the effect of social capital on household food vulnerability. Results revealed that the major food insecurity coping strategies based on social capital commonly adopted by urban households were food purchase on credit, borrowing of money, food offers, reliance on informal credit, money offers, labour sales and exchange of assets for food. The study has also revealed that social capital significantly increases household income in the study area (p<0.05) but did not significantly reduce household food insecurity vulnerability (p>0.05). In addition, some characteristics of the identified social capital based coping strategies were uncovered. Whereas food purchase on credit was a characteristic of the poor and food vulnerable households, borrowing of money was practised by both low and medium income households. On the other hand, lack of social capital was not a major factor restricting low income households from accessing food on credit or getting money offers. Borrowing of money was common among close friends and neighbours while, food and money offers mainly took place between non-blood and blood relatives, respectively. In view of the findings from this study, a number of policy implications are recommended. Development policies ought to advance and nurture social capital strategies commonly used by society in coping with food insecurity. It is also clearly apparent that there is a need for prioritising and clearly targeting beneficiaries of food assistance aimed at reducing food insecurity vulnerability in urban areas. Overall the study strongly alerts on the fact that incomes of urban households are significantly low rendering food items unaffordable.
Nutritional status and socio-economic problems of adolescent pregnant girls: A case study of Morogoro, Coast and Dar es salaam regions
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2002) Shirima, Candida Philip
Adolescence is a distinct and dynamic phase of development and considered to be the period between 10 and 19 years of age. It marks the onset of puberty. In some communities, it means the girl child is ready to engage in marital affairs and bear children. This dissertation presents the results of a study conducted in Temeke, Kibaha and Morogoro districts to examine the socio-economic factors and nutritional problems of adolescent pregnant girls. Specifically, the study examined prevalence of adolescent pregnancies, factors contributing to early pregnancies, problems faced by pregnant adolescent girls, pre-pregnancy nutritional status, nutritional status during pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. Primary data were collected from 180 pregnant adolescent girls and 600 non-pregnant adolescent girls. Nutritional status was assessed by anthropometric and biochemical methods. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was employed to analyse the data. Prevalence of adolescent pregnancy was found to be 21.5% for Temeke district, 19.5% in Kibaha district and 17.7% in Morogoro district. Factors identified to contribute to early pregnancy are: traditions and culture of initiation rites, lack of knowledge on family planning, fear of side effects associated with family planning methods and economic hardship among adolescent girls. It was further observed that adolescent girls encounter many problems such as unplanned pregnancies and marriages, dropout from school, late detection of pregnancy, late antenatal visit to detect any abnormalities, rejection by their partners after conception, and economic dependence.
Nutrient content of the popular dishes consumed by children below five years of age in banana growing communities: a case study of Bukoba Rural District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Godson, Namsifu
The study was carried out to identify popular dishes that arc given to children below five years of age in Bukoba Rural District. Cooking methods, ingredients used and percentage contribution of RDA to vitamin A and iron from the three popular dishes were assessed. The results showed that katogo (banana, beans and sardines), (stiff porridge, beans, and stewed sardines) and cassava with beans and sometimes sardines were the three popular dishes that were given to children below five years of age. The common cooking method used was boiling; others which were used rarely were steaming and frying the sardines with very little oil. The dishes were prepared as observed in the households during the survey. The nutrient content from the popular dishes were analysed and calculated using the HPLC and Microsoft Excel (2007) respectively. The proportion of the RDA for vitamin A and iron was calculated based on the RDA for vitamin A and iron which was 400 RAE and 10 mg respectively. The result on the proportion to the RDA showed that, for vitamin A, katogo dish with the average consumption size of 837.5 g had (43.68 RAE) and (77.81%) RDA of vitamin A, was the one with highest amounts (p<0.05) than the others. The component that had high and significant amount (p<0.05) of vitamin A was plain boiled banana (nshakala) with 78.57 RAE and 139.94% RDA of vitamin A with the average consumption size of 712.5 g. For iron the mixture of stiff porridge, beans and stewed sardines dish had 22.89 mg/100 g and 114.2% RDA. Katogo had 106.11% RDA of iron and showed no statistical significant difference (p<0.05) with that of a mixture of stiff porridge, beans and sardines. Steamed sardines with 28.31 mg/100 g and 53.08% of RDA of iron was the component with highest amount followed by stewed sardines with (25.38 mg/100 g) and (47.59%) contribution to the RDA.
Comparative study of nutritional status of communities engaged in different livelihood systems in Bagamoyo district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2010) Musongwe, Toligwe Kaisi
A cross-sectional study was conducted in Bagamoyo district to compare the nutritional status of communities engaged in three livelihood systems namely fishing, pastoralism and farming found in three villages of Mlingotini, Chamakweza and Kiwangwa. Anthropometric and haemoglobin level assessments were conducted on 794 individuals from 133 households. The findings show that malnutrition (wasting, stunting and underweight) in underfive children were not significantly different in the three livelihood systems. The prevalence of low BMI-for-age in school-age children was higher in the pastoralist livelihood (31.2%) and lower in farming livelihood (15.6%). Further analysis showed significant difference in BMI-for-age whereby the pastoralist boys and girls had higher rate of low BMI-for-age and lower mean scores. Malnutrition rate in adults was highest in fishing livelihood (37.9%) and was lowest in pastoralist livelihood (27.1.7%). The total overnutrition (overweight and obesity) was higher among adult females in farming and undernutrition was higher among pastoralist females. Prevalence of anaemia was significantly higher among underfives and children of 5-11 years old in pastoralists and lower among farming children. The study recommends for intervention programmes that will focus on eliminating the factors that impact on people’s nutrition outcome such as structural or underlying factors of the people livelihood systems and vulnerability to those particular factors (shocks).
Nutritional quality of low-cost supplementary foods for supporting growth and rehabilitation of undernourished populations in Tanzania
(Michigan State University, 2004) Mosha, Theobald Conrard Edward
Severe undemutrition during childhood remains a common health problem in many parts of the world and contributes immensely to childhood morbidity and mortality. According to WHO/UNICEF, producing low-cost, ready-to-feed, nutritious foods from locally produced ingredients by using low-to-medium level technologies in local settings can considerably help mitigate child undemutriton through increased access to food. The aim of this study was to formulate, process, and evaluate the quality of processed, ready-to- feed bean-based composite supplementary foods for pre-school age children in low- income populations in Tanzania. Supplementary foods based on cereal-bean-sardine mixtures were formulated from ingredients produced locally in Tanzania. The products were formulated to maximize the amino acid score as recommended by the FAO/WHO/UNU for pre-school age children and to provide the desired amount of energy and fat as stated by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius guidelines (CAC/GL 08-1991) for supplementary foods for older infants and young children. Red beans {Phaseolus vulgaris), com/maize {Zea mays), rice {Oryza sativa), sardines {Sardinops melanosticta) and red palm oil {Elaeis guineensis) were formulated into single/multi-mix diets and processed into ready-to-feed powders by extrusion, drum-processing and conventional cooking. The processed products were evaluated for true protein digestibility, net protein retention ratio, protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS), amino acid profile, residual phytohemagglutinins, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and a-amylase inhibitors. Foods were also evaluated for potential to support normal growth and for rehabilitation of undernourished children using a weanling rat model. Furthermore, the products were evaluated for storage stability at 38°C. The studies showed that com-bean-sardine, sorghum-bean-sardine and rice-bean sardine products had superior nutritional value compared to individual cereals or cereal + bean blends. The composite products had high true protein digestibility, ranging from 82 - 93%, high ratio of net protein retention ranging from 0.86 - 0.92 and PDCAAS ranging from 77 - 89%. The composite products also showed a good potential to support growth and rehabilitation of undernourished animals. Extrusion and drum-processing thoroughly cooked the foods as characterized by high gelatinization rate (95 - 100%) and low residual urease activity levels (< 0.05 units per 100 g food). They were also effective in inactivating the phytohemagglutinins (91 - 97%) and the anti-nutritional factors - trypsin, chymotrypsin and a-amylase inhibitors. Extrusion and drum-processing also resulted in products that had high protein digestibility and PDCAAS. During storage at 38°C, the food pH and total acids did not change significantly (p > 0.05). The products were shelf stable for at least 16 weeks.
Nutritional evaluation of sorghum as affected by germination with main reference to dietary bulk and protein quality
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1984) Mosha, Alexander Clemence
The nutritional value of sorghum as affected by germination and different dehulling techniques was studied with emphasis on protein quality, dietary bulk and food intake. Two low-tannin and two high-tannin varieties were investigated. Nutrient content was affected by germination: minor changes occurred in proximate composition, except for a significant decrease in oil in all varieties. Thiamine, riboflavin and niacin content increased. Lysine increased in all varieties and the other essential amino acids in creased marginally. Dietary fibre was unaffected. Tannin content decreased significantly. Traditional and abrasive dehulling decreased the amount of protein, oil, dietary fibre, minerals, tannins and phytic-phosphorous. protein digestibility was Nutrient availability measured in vitro: significantly higher in the low-tannin varieties. Germination and dehulling increased digestibility in all varieties. Cooking reduced protein digestibility in the high-tannin varieties and significantly more than in the low-tannin cultivars. Iron availability was low in all varieties and increased only in one high-tannin variety after germination. Nutrient availability measured in vivo by rat-bio-assay: protein digestibility was high in low-tannin cultivars but low in high-tannin varieties. Germination increased digestibility only in one high-tannin variety. Biological values were higher in the high-tannin varieties. BV and NPU were not affected by germination. In vivo iron availability was higher in the low-tannin varieties and was increased by germination in only one of the high-tannin varieties. Zinc availability was low and was unaffected by germination and tannin content. Dietary bulk and food intake: When preparing weaning gruels, three times as much germinated flour of the low-tannin varieties, as compared to ungerminated, could be mixed into the same volume, while maintaining the same consistency of the gruel. Germinated flour of high-tannin varieties did not have this effect. Addition of 5% germinated low-tannin sorghum flour (enzyme-rich) to thick ungerminated gruels reduced the viscosity to acceptable weaning food consistency. This method of reducing dietary bulk of weaning food was accepted and used by mothers at village level. Food intake by 12-48 months old preschool children was significantly higher for bulk-reduced low viscosity gruel with 20% solids, compared to untreated gruel. It was concluded that sorghum nutrient content is comparable to other cereals except for the high tannin content. Germination generally improves nutritional value through increased lysine, better protein digestibility and reduction of anti nutritional factors, mainly tannins. The use of bulk-reduced high nutrient density weaning foods could eventually improve the nutritional status of young children.
Effect of moringa oleifera leaf meal inclusion in cassava chip based diets fed to poultry
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2009) Olugbemi, Taiye Sunday
A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MOLM) as a feed ingredient in cassava chip (CC) based diets fed to broilers and layers. The broiler experiments consisted of a feeding trial, digestibility trial, carcass analysis, haematological evaluation and sensory evaluation. Seven treatments (T) comprising of a control diet (Tl), T2. T3, T4 (20% C with 0%, 5%, 10% MOLM) and T5. T6. T7 (30% C with 0%. 5%. 10% MOLM) were fed to 378 broiler chicks. A reduction in performance was observed with increasing inclusion level of MOLM beyond 5%. Birds on T3 did not differ significantly (P>0.05) in terms of weight gain (46.20 - 49.56g/day), feed conversion ratio (2.57 - 2.84), final body weight (2365- 2569g), feed intake (127.9 - 130.4g) and feed cost per kilogram weight gain (501.4 - 555.0 TSH) from those on Tl, T2 and T5 diets. Digestibility results had to be discarded due to their unreliability. Dietary treatments significantly (P<0.05) affected live weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage, abdominal fat and bone percentages though T3 did not differ (P>0.05) from Tl, T2 and T5. Lean, heart, liver and gizzard percentages differed insignificantly (P>0.05). Haematological parameters were generally not influenced (P>0.05) by treatment except for white blood cells. Addition of MOLM improved meat acceptability. The layer experiments consisted of 80 birds randomly assigned to four diets consisting of a control (TL1) diet containing neither CC nor MOLM and MOLM at 0%, 5% and 10% in combination with 20% C (TL2, TL3, TL4). Feed intake, feed conversion ratio, albumen and yolk percentage were not significantly (P>0.05) influenced by the inclusion of MOLM. The highest (P<0.05) egg weight and Roche colour score were obtained from non control groups with 63.31g from TL3 and 7.79 from TL4 respectively. Feed cost per kilogram (190.6-214.8TSH) and feed cost per kilogram egg (536.3-588.7TSH) significantly declined (P<0.05) with inclusion of MOLM. Addition of 10% MOLM in combination with 20% CC resulted in a 21.96% and 12.06% decline in scrum and yolk cholesterol levels respectively. General acceptability of the cooked eggs was highest from TL4 group. Results of these investigations indicate that broilers and layers can be safely fed MOLM up to levels of 5% and 10% respectively in cassava based diets without deleterious effects. provided CC docs not exceed 20%. Cassava in the form of chips is a good form of poultry feeding and the inclusion of MOLM enhances both meat and egg products by producing carcasses with reduced abdominal fat, improving meat acceptability and egg qualities due to its enhanced yolk colour, reduced cholesterol and cost of producing eggs.
Genetic interaction between phaseolus vulgaris and bean common mosaic virus with implications for strain identification and breeding for resistance
(Wageningen, 1978) Drijfliout, E.
DRIJFHOUT, 嚣 TEic Mus with implications for strain identi^-aHon^nd^breeding for resistance. RepJVerllJandbouwk. Onderz.) 872. ISBN 90 220 0671 9. (vii) + 98 p.. summaries. 仙*撷 , 2 加*4两加卅、 Aho: Doctoral thesis, 'Vageningen^ } Various strains of bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) occur in susceptible cultivars of bean. To compare compare these strains, a standard procedure for identification ;ind a set of dif- bean. To ferentiM cultivars were established. The differentials are representatives of 11 resistance Roups'determined groups, < ---------- --- by testing - of about 450 lx?an cultivars with 8 to 10 strains. The virus strains and isolates were classified into 10 pathogenicity groups and subgroups, so that 10 strains were distinguished and the others considered as isolates of those strains. Twelve differentials were intercrossed and their F, and tested with most of the strains for genetical analysis of resistance in bean. Seven genes were distinguished: a necrosis gene /, already known from the literature. 5 strain-specific resistance guncs be』, be」,bc・2, bc-22 and bc・3, and a strain-unspccific gene be*, complementary to the strain-specific ones. Genes hc-1 and he-12 were allelic, as were bc・2 and bc・2:. The 5 loci segregated independently or nearly so. The 4 strain-specific genes bc・l to hc-22 had a gcnc-for-gcnc relationship with 4 pathogenicity genes, likely to be present in the virus strains. Gene bc-3 had not been overcome by a corresponding pathogenicity gene. Two bean genotypes were developed with resistance to all known strains. Some implica tions for resistance breeding arc discussed. Free descriptors: Phaseolus vulgaris, common bean, bean common mosaic virus. BCM V, breeding for resistance, genetics of resistance, iiost 一 virus relationship, pathogenic varimion, screening for resistance, strain identification. This thesis will also be published as Agricultural Research Reports 872. ® Sc 血 Agricultural Publishing and Documentation ,Wageningen, 1978. No Part of this book may be r:r._. rint, micro- reproduced and/or published in any form, by print, photop film or any other means without wri -• written permission from the publishers.
Assessment of processing methods, sensory attributes, nutritional quality and safety of cassava leaves product (Isombe) in Rwanda
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Umuhozariho, Marie Goretti
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Cranz) leaves are cherished as a vegetable in Africa, but contain a toxic compound, cyanide. Studies were conducted to assess utilization, cyanide and nutritional value of cassava leaves after different preparation procedures in Rwanda. After a survey, leaves from bitter, sweet and wild cassava were: (1) pounded and cooked, (2) dried, pounded and cooked, and (3) pounded, dried and cooked. Drying was done to brittleness in a solar dryer after leaves were blanched. Sensory evaluation was done using a five point hedonic scale, where 5= like very much, 4= like moderately, 3= neither like nor dislike, 2= dislike moderately and 1= dislike very much. Cyanogens, vitamin C, P- carotene, crude protein, iron, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc and moisture content (dry weight basis) were determined in: (i) un-dried, (ii) dried, (iii) un-dried and cooked, and (iv) dried and cooked. Tire chemicals of dry stored samples were also monitored after three, six, nine and twelve months. Results showed that cassava leaves from the three species were consumed as food and sun-drying was a single method used by fanners to extend the storage life. Colour, taste, aroma, texture and overall acceptability were principally affected by processing procedures. Fresh and dry leaves were preferred as vegetable except when they were pounded after drying. After boiling for 30 minutes. cyanide level (40 mg HCN/kg) was above FAO/WHO recommendation (10 mg HCN equivalent/kg) in the relish, but was judged as safe for the fact that it is served in small quantities as side food, reducing the HCN by serving to minor levels in comparison to documented acute oral lethal dose of HCN for an adult (30-210 HCN/60 kg bodyweight). Except vitamin C, amounts of P-carotene, iron, calcium, phosphorus, potassium and zinc were considerable, averaging 340, 153,4264, 3531, 8426 and 54 mg/kg, respectively, and protein (34%) was high and valuable for cyanide human body detoxification. Stored, moisture increased significantly by 6.8% and shelf life was estimated at six months in water, air and light proof material. Further studies in Rwanda on cassava cyanide disorders and approximate safe quantities of cassava leaves relish are recommended.
Maternal nutritional knowledge, child feeding practices, and nutrition status in Njombe and Geita Tanzania - ethnicity perspective
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Berenge, Hassan Tearish
Stunting is still one of the major public health issues affecting developing countries, including Tanzania. Despite the effort to achieve child health, more than half of children aged less than five years were stunted. Njombe and Geita are among the regions with a higher prevalence of child stunting in Tanzania. Stunting arises as a result of the cumulative effects of suboptimal Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices (IYCF) practices; poor maternal nutrition knowledge; and poor maternal and child health conditions. There is little information on whether perception of ethnicity had an effect on executing IYCF and maternal knowledge purposely to improve child nutrition status. This study assessed maternal nutritional knowledge, IYCF feeding practices, child nutrition status, and the respective roles of nutrition interventions in regions with high rates of stunting and different ethnicities (Geita and Njombe), Tanzania. A cross-section study was conducted on a sample of 150 mother-child pairs that were randomly selected within regions of high stunting rates (Njombe and Geita) in Tanzania. This study was piloted in the first quarter of 2020. A structured questionnaire was used for collecting socio-demographic, feeding practices, and anthropometric data. Individual dietary diversity scores were from 24-hourse recall; birth date was calculated from the child's growth card; and standard anthropometric procedures were used to obtain child height and weight. Major ethnic groups from each district were merged to satisfy the statistical power. The ENA for SMART software was used for HAZ, WAZ, and WHZ, and then entered into IBM SPPS Statistics 21 for further analysis. Descriptive and logistic regression models were used to summarize data and explore causes and factors (socio-demographic features and IYCF practice indicators) of child stunting. In the Njombe and Bukombe districts, both had optimal IYCF practicesiii whereby 46.9% of infants-initiated breast milk within 1 hour after birth; minimum dietary diversity was 11.6%; and only 9.1% of children in Geita had a minimum acceptable diet. Also, the availability of nutrition interventions and their readiness to improve services had a statistically significant effect on optimal IYCF practices and child nutrition status (p = 0.014 and 0.048) respectively. About 90.5% of adolescent mothers (15–20 years) had poor nutrition knowledge (p = 0.005). In general, major ethnic groups in the Njombe district had the highest rate of increased stunting compared to major ethnic groups in Bukombe district (53.8% vs. 37.6%; p = 0.5). Infants aged 0–11.9 months were more stunted than other age groups. The stunting rate of male infants in Njombe district was relatively higher (68%) than female infants (45%). The major ethnic group in Njombe had a mean HAZ of (-1.85) while (-0.91) in the major ethnic group in the Bukombe district. Since the findings showed there was suboptimal IYCF practice and poor maternal nutritional knowledge as determinant factors for child stunting, this highlights the need for initiating and enlarging multicomponent nutrition interventions with vital components for improving nutrition status based on ethnicity perspective. Keywords: Malnutrition, Stunting, Maternal nutrition knowledge, Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) practices, and Nutrition intervention.
Factors influencing micronutrient status in school children and role of indigenous vegetables for improving micronutrient intake in rural Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Gowele, V. F.
Introduction: Deficiencies of iron, zinc and vitamin A in the body continue to affect the health and wellbeing of women and children in Tanzania; consequently, leading to retarded growth during childhood and poor cognitive development, hence, reduced learning capacity and poor school attendance. Moreover, micronutrient deficiencies lower immunity; therefore, reduce ability of the body to fight infections, making children highly susceptible to infections. Factors that contribute to micronutrient deficiencies include inadequate consumption of diverse foods, high prevalence of infectious diseases and inefficient utilization of micronutrients in the body due to persistent inflammations and heavy parasitic infestations. This study aimed at determining the prevalence of micronutrient deficiency and associated factors among school children living in rural households of Kilosa and Chamwino districts in Tanzania. The study determined the concentration of haemoglobin in the blood and status of micronutrients iron, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin E and carotenoids in the serum. The anthropometric measurements of the school children were also assessed to establish their nutritional status. Furthermore, the nutrient intake of school children and the micronutrient composition of selected indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) commonly consumed in study areas were also determined to provide data to guide their consumption. Methods: This study used a follow-up design in which two sequential cross sectional surveys were conducted. The baseline survey was conducted in July-August 2016 to assess the nutritional and micronutrient status of the school children prior to the implementation of an integrated home gardening intervention which started in July 2017- May 2018. The second or endline survey was conducted in July-August 2018 one year after the implementation of an integrated home gardening intervention. The study population included school children of age between five and ten years, who were enrolled to the study together with their mothers or caregivers. The sample size at baseline was 666 child mother or caregiver pairs obtained through a simple random sampling technique. The study areas were purposively selected based on the Scale-N project criteria; this included Dodoma region, where Chamwino district was selected and was represented by Mzula and Chinoje villages; for Morogoro region, Kilosa district was selected and was represented by Tindiga and Mhenda-Kitunduweta villages. Data on socio-demographic variables such as age, gender and morbidity were collected using a pretested questionnaire whereas for dietary intake a 24-hour recall method was used. Anthropometric status was assessed using measurements of weight, height and mid upper arm circumference (MUAC). Serum concentration of retinol (vitamin A), carotenoids and tocopherols (vitamin E) were determined using the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) while iron status markers (ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor), infection or inflammation markers (C-reactive protein, α-1 glycoprotein) by a sandwich enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA) technique and serum zinc by a spectrophotometric method. School children-mothers or caregivers pairs were followed for two years to assess anthropometric, dietary and biochemical parameters (serum micronutrients and infection markers). In the selected ILVs the concentration of provitamin A carotenoids, tocopherols, and ascorbic acid (AA) were determined using HPLC; the minerals iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and phosphorus were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrophotometry (ICP-OES), while phytic acid content was determined using a photometric method. Results: At baseline the overall prevalence of stunting was 28.1%, underweight 14.4%, and overweight was 5%. Micronutrient deficiencies showed varied prevalence; whereby 43% of the children had anaemia, 29.3% showed deficiency of iron (ID), 24.9 % were vitamin A deficient (VAD), and 26.4% had zinc deficiency (ZnD). The overall prevalence of reported malaria and diarrhoea was 30.7% and 20.7% respectively. Dietary intake data indicated that, only small proportions of children reached the recommended daily micronutrient intakes for zinc (4%), vitamin A (19%) and B vitamins (14–46%), except for iron (74%). Stunting was highly associated (p <0.001) with underweight in both districts and with VAD in Chamwino (p <0.05). Anaemia was mainly predicted by ID, VAD, and ZnD in Chamwino while in Kilosa it was predicted by elevated infection markers, C - reactive protein (CRP) and α-1 glycoprotein (AGP). Higher serum carotenoids indicative of a diet high in fruits and vegetables was associated with the lower risk of VAD whereas elevated CRP and/or AGP increased the risk of VAD. The micronutrient content (provitamin A carotenoids, tocopherols, ascorbic acid and minerals which are iron, calcium, magnesium and zinc) of the selected ILVs commonly consumed in the study areas was high. Beta-carotene concentration was high ranging between 2.91 and 4.84 mg/100 g (fresh weight) in ILVs including Amaranthus spp, Sesamum angustifolium and Corchorus trilocularis. This amount could provide more than 50% of the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) for vitamin A. The level of iron was high (34.5–60.4 mg/100 g) in ILVs including Cleome hirta and Sonchus luxurians and capable of providing more than 50% of RNI for iron. Amaranthus ssp. had high levels of calcium, magnesium and zinc and these amounts could provide 85%, 207% and 21% of RNI per 100 g, respectively. Cleome hirta and Cleome gynandra had high ascorbic acid content more than 15 mg/100 g, and could provide 34 –35% of RNI for ascorbic acid. Sesamum angustifolium was the only ILV with high tocopherol content (7.34 mg α-TE/100 g). The highest phytate concentration was found in Amaranthus ssp., which could negatively affect its role as a very good source of minerals. After the implementation of an integrated home gardening intervention, the prevalence of anaemia decreased from 42.7’% to 30.6%, and vitamin A deficiency from 24.5% to 0.4% (p<0.001). Consumption of vegetables, fruits and legumes significantly increased from baseline to the end-line survey (87% vs 98%, 63% vs 69% and 76% vs 87%), p<0.001, respectively. Moreover, households that reported to grow vegetables increased from 76.6% to 82.1%, (p<0.05); awareness on pocket gardening increased from 21.6% to 92.9%, (p< 0.001) and proportion of households practicing pocket gardening increased from 3% to 76.4% (p < 0.001) from baseline to the end-line survey. Conclusions: School children in the districts of Chamwino and Kilosa, Tanzania, are simultaneously affected by low energy intake, anaemia, infections such as malaria, micronutrient deficiencies, and inadequate diets. Moreover, significant variations in micronutrient status and dietary habits between districts were observed. Long-term nutritional deficits as reflected by high prevalence of stunting and current micronutrient status, especially vitamin A, iron and zinc, underlines the importance of targeting school children in national nutrition and health surveys for nutrition assessment and surveillance. The analysed indigenous leafy vegetables can potentially make a considerable contribution towards the requirements for nutrients, particularly vitamin A and iron, which are micronutrients of public health significance among school children in the study areas. The significant decrease in the prevalence of anaemia and vitamin A deficiency among the school children during post intervention phase, suggests the potential of integrating nutrition sensitive interventions such as home gardening and nutrition education for better nutritional outcomes. Moreover, programs that reduce infectious diseases and improve hygiene are essential to ensure quality utilization of nutrients in the body.

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