Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Acceptability of a prototype point of care test for human taeniosis and cysticercosis diagnosis, in Mbeya and Songwe
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Emil, Thomas
The proto-type Taenia solium taeniosis/cysticercosis point of care test (TSTC-POC test) is a combined T. solium taeniosis / cysticercosis diagnostic test that enables immediate diagnosis of individuals suffering from taeniosis or cysticercosis or both, and hence, enabling immediate interventions. A cross-sectional study was carried out in selected District health facilities (Ifisi, Makandana and Vwawa) of Mbeya and Songwe Regions, Tanzania to assess perceptions and factors influencing the acceptability of the TSTC-POC test among individuals who were tested during a TSTC-POC test proto-type evaluation. The assessment of acceptability of the TSTC-POC test was carried out through application of Health Belief Model (HBM), a social science theoretical framework. A total of 260 persons were interviewed using a structured questionnaire immediately after they undertook the TSTC-POC test. Data were analyzed using SPSS 16.0 where descriptive statistics and association between variables using Chi-square test were computed. Statistical significance was established at 95% confidence level and p value <0.05. The acceptability of the POC test was high (95.4%). The main factor making the test acceptable was the short time it took between testing and getting the result (45.3% of the respondents). Factors that motivated individuals to undergo the TSTC-POC test include the perceived threat of the disease (death and disabilities), trust in health practitioners and the diagnostic tool itself. Acceptability of TSTC-POC test was not influenced by study hospital, age groups, gender, education level and primary occupation of study participants. It is concluded that the TSTC-POC test is acceptable among study population of Mbeya and Songwe region, southern Tanzania. Information on the test's sensitivity and specificity is required to guide its adoption and promotion for control of TSTC in Tanzania, a potential breakthrough in TSTC surveillance.
Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in homemade and commercial cereal based complementary foods with formula in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Katengesya, T. P.
Aflatoxins (AF) and fumonisins (FM) are major foodborne mycotoxins of public health concerns that infect maize and groundnuts which are the main components of cereal based complementary foods with formula (CBCF-F). The study was conducted to: determine and compare the quantity of total AF and FM among different types of CBCF-F, identify the factors that might influence high contamination of AF and FM in CBCF-F, and assess awareness and perceptions of the processors about AF and FM contamination in cereals. The study design was cross-sectional, involving 60 processors whose 70 CBCF-F were collected for laboratory analysis. High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay methods were used to quantify total AF and FM in the 70 CBCF-F samples. Data analysis was done using SPSS, and comparisons of the total AF and FM among samples were done with Duncan’s LSD. The results showed that 93 and 98% of CBCF-F samples were contaminated with AF and FM respectively; 32.9% of the samples exceeded the regulatory limit of 10 ppb set by TBS. There was no sample that exceeded the regulatory limit of 2 ppm for total fumonisin. The factors that increased AF contamination in CBCF-F were the use of groundnuts (p < 0.05) and living in rental houses (p < 0.05). Eighty-two (82%) and 95% of the respondents were not aware of AF and FM respectively; 90 had seen molds but 76.7% of them did not associate them with health implications while 28.3 and 48.3% perceived molds as crop diseases and decayed foods with no health implications to human being respectively. It is concluded that infants depending on CBCF-F are exposed to AF and FM contamination. Also, groundnuts and rental houses contribute significantly to increasing total AF in CBCF-F, and the majority of processors of CBCF-F are not aware of multiple occurrences of mycotoxins in cereal products. It is recommended that mycotoxins contamination should be viewed as a cross cutting issue and given priority in Tanzania.
Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of maize and beans along the food and feed value chain in Babati district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Nyangi, Chacha Joseph
The natural occurrence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in maize and beans at harvest, during storage and along the value chain, including processed, feed and marketed products in three villages of Long, Sabilo and Seloto in Babati District, Manyara region, Tanzania, was investigated in the year 2013/14. The villages were chosen as they represents three different climatic zone. Total aflatoxins and fumonisins contamination in 440 at harvest maize samples had levels up to 26.2 μg/kg and 46.2 mg/kg, respectively. Aflatoxins contamination in 38 common beans samples had levels up to 3 μg/kg. The aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in all beans samples were within the maximum tolerable limit (MTL) of 10 μg/kg and 2 mg/kg respectively, by East African Commission standards (EAC, 2011b). Parameter estimates from the generalised linear model (GENMOD) indicated that medium altitude low rain zone that lies between 1500 and 1850 metre above sea level (m.a.s.l) and representing Sabilo village (0.26) was the major factor pre-disposing maize to aflatoxin contamination, while early planting (-0.22), hand hoe tillage (−0.59) and ox tillage (-0.55) were the major factor reducing the aflatoxin contamination. High altitude high rainzone (Long village) that lies between 2150 and 2450 m.a.s.l was the most important factor reducing fumonisin contamination in maize with a parameter estimate of -2.93. Total aflatoxin and fumonisin levels were also determined in 574 maize and 106 bean samples stored by 60 farmers over a period of 180 days from august, 2013 to March, 2014. Maize samples from Seloto village were more contaminated (mean value of 3.24μg/kg) than those from Sabilo village (mean value of 3.12 μg/kg). Factors associated with higher aflatoxin contamination were storage for 0 to 80 days and storage with other crops, while for fumonisin most influential factor was storage of maize in granaries comparing to polypropylene and improved bags. The storage technique or facility that had a higher risk of aflatoxin development was polypropylene bags without any insecticides treatment (control) with a mean contamination value of 3.57 μg/kg and polypropylene bags with insecticides and pesticides treatment (normally used by most of farmers) with a mean value of 3.30 μg/kg. Lower aflatoxin levels were related to the use of traditional storage insecticides, sorting, and storage in improved bags. Among the maize and beans samples collected from the market (vendors) and from processors (small-scale mills) were whole maize grains, maize flour, feed (maize bran and bad-sorted maize not fit for human consumption but normally fed to animals) produced locally from the three villages. Maize bran had highest levels of aflatoxin with a mean value of 2.38 μg/kg and bad sorted portion with fumonisins mean value of 7.42 mg/kg, followed by whole maize with a mean aflatoxin value of 1.73 μg/kg and maize bran with a fumonisin mean value 1.02 mg/kg, while, dehulled maize was least contaminated with fumonisin. During milling mycotoxin become concentrated in bran that most commonly become animal feed. This would reduce the mycotoxins levels in the fraction that is normally used for food (maize flour and dehulled maize). All animal feed grade grain materials had levels lower than MTL of 20 μg/kg for total aflatoxin and a range of 5 to 100 mg/kg for total fumonisin (FAO, 2004; FDA, 2001). The observations made in this study call for use of best practices along the commodity value chain that can reduce contamination in order to improve food and feed safety.
Aflatoxin in peanut butter and compliance with the national food laws among SMEs in Dar es Salaam region
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Kiwia, Lulu
The aim of this study was to determine the levels of aflatoxin in peanut butter and compliance with the national food laws among SMEs peanut butter manufacturers in Dar es Salaam region. Semi-structured questionnaire was used to assess awareness on aflatoxin contamination in peanut butter, and observation checklist was used to assess compliance practices with national food laws among SMEs peanut butter manufacturers. Samples of peanut butter were collected randomly from 30 peanut butter SMEs selected from the list provided by Small Industries Development Organization (SIDO). Samples were analyzed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. The total amount of aflatoxins detected in peanut butter samples ranged from 0.075 to 317 μg/kg of which 33.3% of the samples for AFB1 (5.1 to 277.7 μg/kg) and 26.6% of the samples for total aflatoxin (15.5 to 317 μg/kg) exceeded the TBS regulatory limit 5 μg/kg and 15 μg/kg respectively as established by TZS 844:2014. The results revealed that all peanut butter SMEs had knowledge on susceptibility of peanut and peanut butter to aflatoxin while only 3.3% of peanut butter SME was not aware on favorable conditions for aflatoxin in peanuts. These peanut butter SMEs did not register 80% of the premises and 83.3% of the products, and most 90% of the products did not have TBS marks. Also 56.7% of peanut butter SMEs did not have business license. The high level of aflatoxin found in peanut butter poses significant threats to the health of consumers. Therefore, food regulatory authorities should encourage SMEs peanut butter manufacturers to use clean raw material and practice required Quality Assurance (QA), and should monitor the levels of aflatoxin in peanut butter and ensure all SMEs peanut butter manufacturers are registered and comply with the national food laws.
Assessing and controlling bio-deterioration of maize in Tanzania.
(Iowa State University, 2016) Suleiman, Rashid A.
Agriculture is the backbone of the Tanzanian economy. It accounts for about one-third of the gross domestic product (GDP), provides 85 percent of all exports and serves as a livelihood lo over 80 percent of the total population. Maize or corn (Zea mays L.) is the primary staple crop; it’s grown in nearly all agro-ecological zones in the country. Tanzania is a major maize producer in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the last four decades, Tanzania has ranked among the top 25 maize producing countries in the world. Despite the steady production of maize over the past three decades, post-harvest losses of maize remained significantly high, especially for small-holder farmers. Post-harvest handling, poor infrastructure, and weather variability, bio-deterioration brought about by pest organisms such as insects, molds, and fungi, rodent, bacteria, pathogens, and viruses often aggravate such losses. In tropical countries, a large proportion of the maize is harvested and stored under humid and warm climatic conditions, which subsequently results in rapid deterioration of the grains, mainly because of growth of molds and pests. Deterioration of maize is mainly affected by moisture content, temperature (grain and air), relative humidity, storage conditions, fungal growth, and insect pests. Fungal growth, especially Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium sp in maize, facilitated by hot and humid conditions, poses a major health risk through production of mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of fungi that frequently contaminate the maize in the field and/or during storage. The most important mycotoxins in maize are the aflatoxins, Fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin. In order to maintain high quality maize for both short- and long-term storage, maize must be protected from weather, the growth of microorganisms, and insect pests. Stored product pests such as Siiophilus zeamais (Motschulsky), the maize weevil, are serious pests of economic importance in stored products in tropical and subtropical countries. Infestation often starts in the field, but serious damage is done during maize storage. This study determined the resistance of flint corn and dent corn to infestation by S. zeamais. Improved King Philip hybrid flint com and Fontanelle 6T-510 hybrid dent corn were used. Two temperature conditions (10 and 27°C) and two storage times (15 and 30 days) were used. Results showed flint corn was more resistant to insect damage than dent corn at 27°C significantly higher in flint corn (R2= 0.945) compared to dent com (R2 = 0.634). Likewise. the damaged seed was 10% higher in dent corn than in flint corn at 27°C and 30 days. However, no significant difference was observed for seed weight loss between flint corn and dent com at the same storage conditions. Further, the study evaluated S. zeamais infestation on seven varieties of maize. Seven commercial maize varieties (white dent, yellow dent, orange flint, Indian flint, white and yellow popcorn, and sweet com), two temperature conditions (10 and 27 °C) and three storage times (30. 60, and 90 days) were used. The moisture contents of all maize samples weevils, seed damage, weight loss, and weight of powder produced were assessed at the end of each storage time. As expected, severe damage was observed at 27°C and 90 d for all maize varieties. Exponential growth rates of S. zeamais were observed in almost all maize varieties. Among seven varieties evaluated, orange flint corn, yellow, and white popcorn show resistance to 5. zeamais. Sweet and dent corn were most susceptible to maize weevil infestation. Higher numbers of live S zeamais were observed on Indian flint corn and sweet were adjusted to 15.5 } 0.5% (wet basis) prior to initiating storage trials. Numbers of live and 30 days storage time. After 30 d storage time and 27°C, death rate of the weevls was corn. Consequently, there was a higher seed weight damage and weight loss. In addition, seed damaged, percentage seed weight loss and weight of powder produced was significantly and positively correlated with a number of live S. zeamais (r = 0.91, P<0.05), (r = 0.88, /’<0.05). and (r = 0.89, P<0.05) respectively. Thus, some varieties of flint corn and popcorn can be considered as potential maize varieties to be used to reduce postharvest loss of maize in tropical countries due to their natural resistance to S. zeamais infestation. Moreover, the study also determined the techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) of maize storage for middle class farmers in developing countries. Maize is the most widely cultivated cereal crop worldwide. It is produced on a seasonal basis, usually harvested once per year. To maintain a constant supply throughout the year, maize should be properly stored. But this entails high cost and high-energy consumption, which can contribute significant amounts of greenhouse gas emissions. Three storage capacities (25,000 bu. 250.000 bu and 2,500,000 bu) per year were evaluated for economic analysis and environmental impact. The result shows the total storage cost per kilogram decreased as storage capacity increased (3.69$/bu, 1.89$/bu, and 0.42$/bu). Likewise, energy consumption (electricity, diesel and liquid propane) increased as storage capacity increased. Consequently, more greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CFI4, and NOx) were emitted to the environment. Thus, to obtain an optimal balance between economics and the environment, it is important for the farmers to understand the concepts of techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment. Furthermore, the study also determined the measured and predicted temperature of maize under hermetic conditions. Three different storage conditions (room at 25°C, cooling at 4°C, and freezing at -20°C) were investigated. Yellow dent corn variety Blue River 571136 from Iowa, harvested in 2011 was used. Maize was stored in two hermetically sealed bins (50-cm diameter x 76-cm height). Five logger sensors were installed inside the bin to measure temperature and relative humidity of the air and maize grain. The sensors were located at the top, center, bottom, left and right at about 12 centimeter apart. Afterplacing each barrel into storage, temperature and relative humidity values were measured ever}’ minute for 9 days throughout the duration of the experiment. Model validation was carried out by comparing predicted with measured maize grain temperature data in the radial and vertical directions. The temperature in the hermetically sealed cylindrical bins varied, mostly in the radial direction and very little in the axial vertical directions. No noticeable change in temperature was observed in the room condition. Moreover, the temperature in the grain changed more rapidly in the freezing conditions than in the room temperature and cooling conditions. Furthermore, the lag time between the center temperature and the side (right, left, top, and bottom) was greater in the radial direction compared to in the vertical 1.5°C. The predicted and measured values of maize grain temperature at radial and vertical directions were found to be in good agreement. The model shows a good potential conditions under hermetic storage. In addition, the study determined the impact of moisture content and S. zeamais on maize quality during hermetic and non-hermetic storage conditions. Commercially commingled maize kernels were conditioned to target moistures 14, 16, 18, and 20% moisture content (wet basis), and then three replications of 300 grams of maize grain were stored in glass jars or triple ZiplocR slider 66 pm (2.6-mil) polyethylene bags at four conditions: hermetic with weevils, hermetic no-weevils, non-hermetic with weevils, non-hermetic no-weevils. All jars direction. The maximum difference between predicted and measured temperature was application to predict the temperature of maize grain stored at room, cooling and freezing and bags were stored in an environmental chamber at 27°C and 70% relative humidity for cither 30 or 60 days. At the end of each storage period, jars and bags were assessed for visual mold growth, mycotoxin levels, CO2 and O2 concentrations, pH level, the numbers of live and dead 5. zeamais, and maize moisture content. The maize stored in non-hermetic conditions with weevils at 18 and 20% exhibited high levels of mold growth and aflatoxin contamination (>150 ppb). Although mold growth was observed, there were no aflatoxins detected in maize stored in hermetic conditions. The CO2 and O2 concentrations were directly related to the maize moisture contents and storage times. In general, CO2 increased and O2 gradually decreased as storage lime increased. No significant difference in pH was observed in any storage conditions (/’<0.05). Total mortality (100%) of S. zeamais was observed in all hermetically stored samples at the end of 60 days storage. The number of S. zeamais linearly increased with storage time for maize stored in non-hermetic conditions. Moisture content for hermetically stored maize was relatively constant. Moreover, a positive correlation between moisture content and storage time was observed for maize stored in non-hermetic conditions with weevils (r = 0.96, 7><0.05). The results indicate that moisture content and the number of S. zeamais play a significant role in maize storage, both under hermetic and non-hermetic conditions. The study also determined whether there is a synergistic interaction between P. iruncatus and S. zeamais during storage. The interaction between the two insects was evaluated in terms of the numbers of the live population, percent damaged grain, the weight of powder (flour) produced, and percentage seed weight loss. Higher damage was observed in nonhermetic storage with P. Iruncalus and in mixed treatments (P. Iruncalus and S. zeamais). A significant difference <0.05) and positive correlation were observed between the number of live population, percentage grain damage, the weight of powder produced, and percentage seed weight loss on infestation by P. truncates, S. zeamais, and mixed treatments. S. zeamais dominate populations in the early stage, but were outnumbered by P. truncalus after 60 d oi storage in the individual species as well as in mixed treatments. The high percentage grain damage was observed in non-hermetic storage after 60 days in P. truncalus (58%) and mixed treatments (54%). The weight of powder produced ranged from 0-30 grams per 250 grams of maize. Percentage seed weight loss decreased after 60 days for P. truncalus and mixed treatments, but increased onward for S. zeamais, a low synergistic interaction between P. truncalus and S. zeamais was observed. However, P. truncalus plays a significant role when two insects coexist and cause more severe damage than S. zeamais in maize under nonhermetic storage conditions. Furthermore, the study detennined the practicability of periodic physical disturbance on S. zeamais mortality and adaptation by smallholder fanners in developing countries. S. zeamais is the most widely occurring and important cosmopolitan postharvest insect pest of stored maize in tropic and sub-tropical regions. Preventing infestation of this pest without using chemicals remains a huge challenge for smallholder farmers in the developing countries. Physical control methods are effective and attractive alternative methods to prevent, and control stored product pests in grain handling and storage facilities. Physical techniques are based on the application of some kind of force to manipulate the storage environments. They can provide unfavorable conditions for insect pests to multipliply or arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three replications and threestorage times (30, 60, and 90 days) in three regions of Tanzania. A total of 108 clean 20L damage to the grain. In this experiment, disturbed and stationary/control treatments were (L284 x W234 x H391) milimeter plastic containers were each loaded with 10 kilograms of fresh white dent corn and 0.50 kilograms of maize infested with S. zeamais. The initial numbers ofS. zeamais were determined. For the turned treatment, containers were disturbed or turned twice a day, whereas for the controls, the containers were not disturbed until the end of storage. The overall percent mortality after 30, 60, and 90 days of storage were 88. 96, and 98% respectively. A statistically significant difference (7J<0.05) was observed for the number of live S’, zeamais in the control treatments. While the number of live S', zeamais in the turned treatment significantly decreased as storage time increased. The study shows the potential of a feasible, simple, affordable, safe and effective method of protecting maize grain for small-holder farmers in developing countries without using chemicals. Lastly, the study assessed the postharvest practices and awareness of mycotoxins contamination in maize grain. Maize is a major cereal crop in Tanzania and it is grown in diverse agro-ecological zones. Like other sub-Saharan countries, postharvest losses of maize during storage in Tanzania remain significantly high, especially for smallholder farmers. Unpredictable weather and poor postharvest practice contribute significant to rapid deterioration of grain and mold contamination, and subsequent production of mycotoxins. The purpose of this study was to assess the postharvest practices and awareness and knowledge of mycotoxin contamination in maize grain in three agro-ecological zones (Eastern, Central, and Northern) of Tanzania between November 2015 and February 2016. A survey using semi-structured questionnaires was administered to farmers, traders, and consumers of maize. A total of 90 people (30 from each zone) were surveyed with a response rate of was 96% (87). In addition, several samples of maize were collected and analyzed for aflatoxin, fumonisin, and Zearalenone contamination to validate the awareness and knowledge of mycotoxin contamination of maize. The result shows a high level of postharvest losses of maize mainly through insect infestation. Moreover, over 80% of the farmers, traders, and consumers of maize were unaware of mycotoxins contamination. All maize samples collected contained detected levels of mycotoxins. The maximum concentration of aflatoxins, fumonisin, and Zearalenone in maize samples was 19.20 ppb. 7.60 ppm, and 189.90 ppb respectively. Education intervention is necessary to decrease the disconnect observed between actual mycotoxin contamination and the awareness and knowledge of farmers, traders, and consumers of maize in Tanzania. Enhancing awareness and knowledge provide the opportunity to educate on post-harvest practices that reduce postharvest losses of maize in Tanzania.
Assessing sustainability of smallholder dairy and traditional cattle milk production systems in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Munyaneza, C.
Sustainability of smallholder dairy and traditional cattle milk production systems in developing countries, including Tanzania, is limited by a number of constraints such as low cow productivity, shortage of feed, limited access to inputs and outputs markets and degradation of natural resources. Efforts have been made to improve the sustainability, but the improvement is hindered by lack of knowledge on how to ensure sustainability of the production systems particularly at the farm level. To contribute to the efforts being made to address these issues, this study aimed at assessing sustainability of smallholder dairy and traditional cattle milk production systems in Tanzania. The study was conducted in four districts located in Morogoro and Tanga Regions. In the context of this study, a smallholder dairy production system refers to a system with dairy farms which have up to five dairy cows, where majority are crossbreeds of local and pure exotic breeds and milk is considered the main source of income. Meanwhile, a traditional cattle milk production system consists of cattle farms keeping mainly indigenous cattle and milk is not considered the main source of income. The first step of the study involved identifying relevant indicators for assessing sustainability of smallholder dairy as well as traditional cattle milk producing farms. The systems were further categorised into Rural production to Rural consumption (R-to-R) and Rural production to Urban consumption (R-to-U) systems. Whereby R-to-R refer to rural farmers sold milk to rural consumers and R-to-U to rural producers predominantly selling milk to urban consumers. A two-round Delphi approach involving 44 diverse experts and stakeholders was used in identifying the sustainability indicators. The second step involved developing a milk production farm sustainability assessment tool based on a set of fifteen most relevant of the identified indicators. The indicators were selected from the previously identified indicators according to data availability and cost. The tool was used to assess sustainability of 431 randomly selected farms in the study districts. The data were collected through interview of the farmers using a pre-tested questionnaire administered to the selected farms. Individual indicators of sustainability were measured, normalized using mini-max approach, weighted using factor analysis and aggregated into economic, social, environmental and overall sustainability indices using linear aggregation. The sustainability performance indicator and index scores were ranked from 0 to 1 and grouped into three categories of sustainability indicator / index scores namely The R-to-R systems and the R-to-U systems using a two-tailed Student’s t-test. The third step involved analysis of the relationships between the farm and milk producers’ organisations (POs) sustainability performances. The differences between farm sustainability mean performance indicators and indices for PO-member farmers and non-PO-member farmers were analysed using a two-tailed Student’s t-test. The sustainability of POs was assessed using an existing tool, “Producers’ Organisation Sustainability Assessment tool (POSA)”, which is based on a set of six economic and organizational dimensions. The relationships between farm and PO sustainability performance indicators were established using Pearson correlation analysis. The correlation coefficients (r) were categorized as weak (r < 0.3), moderate (0.3 ≤ r < 0.5) and strong (r ≥ 0. 5). Lastly, the study analysed the determinants of smallholder dairy and traditional cattle milk production farm sustainability. Descriptive statistics were analysed to understand the socio-economic characteristics of milk production farms. Then the socio-economic characteristics were compared between R-to-R systems and R-to-U systems using two-tailed Student’s t-test and chi-square for the means and proportions respectively. The double censored Tobit regression model was applied to analyse the determinants of farm sustainability. The Delphi technique refined an initial set of 57 indicators to a final set of 29 relevant indicators. The relevant indicators included 18 economic, seven environmental and four social indicators. Specifically, the key economic indicators were milk hygiene, cow productivity, income per litre of milk and access to milk market. Social indicators included participation in organizations, women’s empowerment and the education level of the farm manager; while environmental indicators were water conservation and access to water. Results from the farm sustainability assessment show that the economic mean score (0.27 ± 0.20), social mean score (0.32 ± 0.27), environmental mean score (0.31 ± 0.22) and overall mean score (0.30 ± 0.15) of farm sustainability indices were weak. The economic, social and overall sustainability mean performance index scores were significantly higher in the R-to-U systems than in the R-to-R systems (p < 0.05), implying better sustainability of R-to-U systems than R-to-R systems. The overall farm sustainability mean performance index, and its economic and social dimensions scores were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in PO-member farmers than in non-PO-member farmers. The “access to dairy production inputs and services” dimension of POs presented strong positive correlations with the overall farm sustainability performance index and its economic dimension (r = 0.58 and 0.67 respectively; p < 0.01). Similarly, the “access to dairy production inputs and services” of POs showed strong correlations (r = 0.70; p < 0.01) with cow productivity performance indicator. The farmers in R-to-U systems had significantly (p < 0.05) smaller land and herd size than in R-to-R system. Stall feeding system was the determinant factor (β = 0.256; p < 0.01) of economic sustainability. The determinant factors for social sustainability were stall feeding system (β = 0.165; p < 0.01), age of household head (β = 0.003; p < 0.05) and acquiring credit (β = 0.190; p < 0.01). The factor influencing environmental sustainability was stall feeding system (β = 0.098; p < 0.01). The factors influencing the overall sustainability were stall feeding system (β = 0.161; p < 0.01), the age of the household head (β = 0.001; p < 0.01) and acquiring credit (β = 0.081; p < 0.01). From the results of the study, it is concluded that a large number of existing indicators like greenhouse gas emissions could be considered less relevant in the context of Tanzania’s smallholder dairy and traditional cattle system than in other contexts. The study showed that 29 out of 57 sustainability indicators assessed were relevant to the studied system. The indicators identified here demonstrate the importance of matching any set of indicators to the characteristics of the specific production system being examined. The study provided a tool and framework for assessing sustainability of milk production farms in smallholder dairy and traditional cattle milk production systems in Tanzania using a set of 15 most relevant sustainability indicators out of the selected 29 indicators. The most relevant economic indicators were milk hygiene and cow productivity; social indicators were participation in organizations and women’s empowerment; environmental indicators were access to water and water conservation. Regarding the level of sustainability of the milk production farms, the results showed that the sustainability performances of smallholder dairy and traditional cattle milk production farms in the selected districts were weak, particularly in R-to-R system. Producers’ organisation sustainability performances, particularly its provision of dairy inputs, have strong positive relationship with farm sustainability performances, particularly the farm economic dimension. Indeed, stall feeding and access to credit tend to improve farm sustainability. From the results of the study, continued private and public investments in the non- traditional dairy areas and promotion of market linkages to urban areas where milk demand is stronger, is recommended not only for immediate improvement of livelihoods but also for sustainability considerations. Indeed, intensive dairy systems should be encouraged for higher sustainability of milk production and this could be possible by improving access to inputs and embedded services. The developed framework can be used by farmers, policy and decision makers to enable them identify key strengths and weaknesses and make respective decision towards sustainable milk production during implementation of dairy improvement programs.
Assessment and characterization of food types consumed by hadzabe hunter-gatherer nomads in northern Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Migata, Mabula Masunga
The aim of this study was to assess and characterize the food types consumed by Hadzabe hunter-gatherer nomads in Karatu and Meatu districts, northern Tanzania. A total of 259 respondents from the target districts were involved in the study. Through cross-sectional study design, the data were collected using structured and semi-structured questionnaires to investigate the temporal patterns for the availability of food types consumed. Micronutrients (Cadmium, Copper, Chromium, Ferrous, Zinc, Magnesium in mg/l and %Calcium) and proximate composition of macronutrients were analysed in three common consumed roots (Ekwa, Magharitako and Shumugo). Overall, 47 varieties of plant species were consumed but only 15 among them were recognized by their scientific names. Twenty eight type of leaf vegetables, 16 root/tubers and 15 wild fruits/berries were identified among consumed plant materials and 29 animal species. Findings from spatial analysis demonstrated that honey (96.5%), meat (91.9%) and roots (76.4%) were found both during dry and rain season. The analyses of micronutrients showed that Cu, Cr, Mg and Fe (mg/l) in the samples exceeded the WHO Maximum Acceptable Residue Level (MARL). In particular, moisture content in Shumugo roots was higher (90%) than the WHO recommended levels. It is concluded that there are many varieties of wild food consumed and their availability depends on the season. The examined roots for micronutrients are probably toxic for Fe, Cr and Cu that requires further toxicity studies. There is need to raise awareness about the risks and hazards associated with nomadism, that include among other things inadequacy of vital nutrients in their diets that may cause malnutrition; and also toxic natural food types.
Assessment of diet quality and dietary diversity of overweight and obese adults in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2017) Katunge, N. N.
Obesity is a condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy. It is one of the most serious public health problems of the 21st century. This study was carried out to determine diet quality and dietary diversity among overweight and obese adults aged 40 years and above working in public and private institutions in Morogoro Municipality. A cross sectional study was conducted in which data were collected once to determine the diet quality and dietary diversity in 288 individuals. Dietary diversity was determined by using a validated 24 hours recall method. Anthropometric measurements of weight and height were measured by using Salter scale and stadiometer, respectively, while waist and hip circumferences were measured by using non-stretchable tape measure. Structured questionnaire was used to collect social-economic and demographic information of the subjects. Data were coded and analyzed by IBM Statistical Product for Service Solution (SPSS) program, version 20. Results showed that, prevalence of overweight was higher (P=0.005) among males (41%, n = 118) than females (22.1%, n = 64) while prevalence of obesity was higher (P = 0.005) among females (26.7%, n = 77) than males (10.1%, n = 29). The average dietary diversity score for the study sample was 5.51 ± 1.056 and no significant association was observed between Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) and Body Mass Index (BMI) of the respondents (P = 0.280). Dietary quality score of the subjects using Diet Quality Index-Revised (DQI-R) was low since they were related to high fat consumption, low fruits and vegetable intakes, and low iron and calcium intakes. There was a strong association (P = 0.000) between diet quality index and BMI of the respondents. Most of the participants in the study (> 80%) had daily energy intakes ranging from 1634.73 to 3598.00 kcal. The average energy intake for both males and females was 2318.18 kcal. Despite most subjects being literate, majority of them were not aware of dietary diversity, diet quality and the health problems that could result from poor dietary diversity. It was concluded from the study that overweight and obesity together with unhealthy eating practices may play a major role in the future risk for cardio vascular diseases, therefore should be discouraged, also dietary diversity should be encouraged but limiting diets that offer a greater variety of energy-dense foods because could increase food intake and body weight. It was recommended from the study that people should be encouraged to eat healthier foods that are high in energy and nutrients from different food groups such as fruits, vegetables, and or non-refined grain. While discouraging the practice of eating highly refined foods, high sugar confectionery foods such as cakes, biscuits and high fat and low fibre foods.
Assessment of farmers handling practices and effectiveness of different post harvest technologies of maize in Kilosa District
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Henry, C. L.
Post-harvest management during handling and storage of maize are crucial for ensuring food security. This study was carried out to assess farmers handling practices and effectiveness of different post-harvest technologies of maize in Kilosa district. A household survey on farmers handling practices and post-harvest technologies used by the farmers to store maize was conducted in Mabwerebwere and Ulaya wards of Kilosa district. The study recorded farmers habits on maize handling practices and polypropylene bags were commonly used to store maize. Main causes of post-harvest losses were found to be insects and rodents. However, the study found post-harvest losses occur mainly during shelling and transporting. Also, laboratory experiment was set up for six months to analyze grain quality in maize stored in polypropylene/Hessian bags (PB), multi-layered plastic bags (PICS), metal silo (MS), roof storage with smoke (RS) and roof storage without smoke (R). The parameters analyzed were percentage moisture content (MC), grain damage (GD) loss and mould growth (MG) at 0 day, 90 days and 180 days. The MC (%) was found to increase with the increase in storage time and ranged from 12.20 to 22.66%. The percent grain damaged was found to increase as storage time increase (0.85 to 21.01%). The MG (log CFU/g) was found to increase with the increase in MC and storage time (4.53 to 5.45 log CFU/g). From the study, the grain quality in terms of moisture and mould growth tended to deteriorate with storage period. Multi-layered plastic bags (PICS) and metal silo were much effective for longer period storage of maize without affecting grain quality compared with hessian bags, roof storage with or without smoking. Further studies on the levels of aflatoxins in the maize stored using different storage facilities are recommended.
Assessment of iodine status of school children, pregnant and lactating women in mufindi and kilosa districts
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2008) Sakina, H
This study was conducted to assess iodine status of school-aged children, pregnant, lactating and normal women in Rungemba, Kitelewasi, Kinyanambo and Berega villages. Data were collected by using a structured, pre-tested questionnaire. Urine and salt samples were collected and analyzed to determine iodine concentrations. Anthropometric measurements including weight and height and records of age, sex and gestation age for the pregnant women were also taken. Data were analysed by using EPI info and SPSS statistical package for window programs. Results showed that, the median urinary iodine concentration for schoolchildren were 132.7 μg/L (boys) and 96.3 μg/L (girls). For pregnant, lactating and normal women, median iodine concentrations were 188.6, 155.7 and 258.4 μg/L, respectively. More than 80% (n = 135) of salt samples collected from the households had iodine concentration levels in the range of 20-50 ppm, while 15.6% (n = 135) had iodine concentrations below 20 ppm. This implied that, iodine concentration in most of the salt samples was adequate. Results also revealed that, 30.9% (n = 144) of schoolboys and 32.3% (n = 127) of schoolgirls had normal weight for age while 4.2% (n = 144) of schoolboys and 4.7% (n = 127 of schoolgirls were severely underweight. Majority 97.3% (n = 144) of schoolboys and 96.9% (n = 127) of schoolgirls had normal weight for height. Likewise, 4.3% (n = 139) of pregnant, 41 % (n = 139) of lactating and 22.3% (n = 139) normal women had BMI within the normal range (18.5 - 24.99) while 0.7% (n = 139) of pregnant, 12% of lactating, and 8% of normal women were overweight. Nutrition education on effects of iodine deficiency disorders and quality control of iodine levels in salt at district and local levels is important to ensure that adequate iodine is reaching the people.
Assessment of microbial contamination in beef from abattoir to retail meat outlets in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Ntanga, Pius Daniel
The aim of this study was to assess microbial contamination in beef production chain from abattoir to retail meat outlets in Morogoro municipality. A total of 102 water, meat and surface swab samples from evisceration tables, walls, floors, meat van floors and knives in abattoir were collected and analyzed for Total Viable Counts (TVC), Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Total Faecal Coliform Counts (TFC). Meat and surface swabs from weighing balances, knives, meat chopping tables, wood cutting blocks in 14 retail meat outlets were also collected and analyzed for the same microbial contamination parameters. The mean values for TVC, TCC and TFC in abattoir were highest in meat samples from neck regions with 7.72, 6.92 and 6.73 log Colony Forming Unit per gram (CFU/g) respectively. The lowest TVC were on knives being 4.13 log CFU/cm2. There was no growth for TCC and TFC in water samples. In beef retail outlets the highest mean values for TVC, TCC and TFC were in meat samples being 7.24, 5.55 and 5.27 log CFU/g respectively. The lowest TVC mean values were in weighing balances being 5.77 log CFU/cm2. The lowest mean values for TCC and TFC were observed on meat chopping tables being 4.13 log CFU/cm2 and 3.47 log CFU/cm2 respectively. There were higher mean values for TVC, TCC and TFC in abattoir compared to retail meat outlets. Results revealed that practices for personal and environmental hygiene were not adhered. Microbial contamination in beef from abattoir to retail meat outlets indicated low hygienic standards on meat produced in the area. Policies, regulations and procedures for hygienic slaughtering practices and handling of meat along the meat production chain should be adhered and enforced by relevant agencies/authorities in order to ensure that the meat produced is wholesome and safe for human consumption.
Assessment of microbial quality of raw cow’s milk and antimicrobial susceptibility of selected milk-borne bacteria in Kilosa and Mvomero districts, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Kanyeka, Happy Brown
Milk is an important source of nutrients to human and animals, but due to its high water activity and nutritional value it serves as an excellent medium for growth of many kind of microorganisms under suitable conditions. The present cross sectional study was conducted to assess microbial quality of raw cow milk and to determine antimicrobial susceptibility of the selected common milk-borne bacteria in Kilosa and Mvomero districts, Morogoro region. A total of 56 respondents were interviewed and subsequently, milk samples were collected for laboratory analysis including microbial quality assessment and antimicrobial susceptibility tests. Results showed that, majority of small-scale livestock keepers were males with no formal education, managing their cattle in dirty environments, practicing extensive grazing system on communal grazing area and treat sick animals themselves. Common antimicrobial agents used were antibiotics. Several factors were observed to predispose milk to microbial contamination. Furthermore, results indicated that 33.9% of respondents consume milk from animals that are under medication, 94.6% of them did not adhere to withdrawal periods, 76.8% of respondents consume raw milk while 78.6% consume milk products made from raw milk. Generally, 85.7% of milk samples had significantly (P < 0.05) higher total bacterial count than the recommended level of 2.0 x 106 cfu/ml by EAC standards. Isolated bacteria included Listeria spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Pseudomonous aeruginosa and Proteus spp. All isolates were resistant to ampicillin but susceptible to gentamycin, and 91.2% of isolates showed multi-drug resistant to more than two antibiotic drugs. This study concludes that the quality of raw cow milk was poor; unhygienic practices and poor animal husbandry at farm level predispose farmers, consumers and the public to risk of contracting milk-borne infections and associated bacterial resistances. It is recommended that veterinarians, extension officers and all stakeholders should play their roles in order to ensure safe quality milk delivery to consumers.
Assessment of nutrient contents of foods widely grown and consumed in Morogoro municipality
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Kailembo, Jane Paul
Nutrient contents of foods widely grown and commonly consumed in Morogoro Municipality were determined, aiming at establishing nutrient composition databases of foods in the study area. Data was collected in dry (July to September) and wet (January to March) seasons. A total of 144 respondents were selected from eight wards using simple random technique. Selected nutrient contents of raw and cooked foods were analyzed according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2000). Results show that majority (93.06%) of the households grew maize and variety of green leafy vegetables namely pumpkin leaves (90.28%), cowpeas leaves (88.89%) and sweet potato leaves (78.47%). Green leafy vegetables are consumed daily (95.13%) with stiff porridge (ugali) (93%) made from refined maize flour as a staple dish sometimes with beans, a major source of protein in the area. Majority (83%) had two meals per day; the rest had three meals a day. Nutrient contents of selected foods compare well with those reported elsewhere, however, major differences were found in carbohydrate contents in raw maize flour (67%), and cooked green banana variety mtwike (18%), these values were lower than reported. Calcium and iron contents were higher in raw amaranthus (0.74%) and cassava leaves (0.012%) than reported (0.011% and 0.003%, respectively). Content of nutrients also differed between raw and cooked food. This was so apparent in leafy green vegetables, whereby difference was found between raw amaranthus (739 mg/100g calcium) and cooked amaranthus (292 mg/100 g calcium). The loss could be due to the practice of throwing away cooking water before the final steps of cooking. Based on these findings, it can be recommended that further studies on determination of nutrient contents of foods produced in different zones of the country need to be conducted to enable people to choose foods appropriately based on their nutrients and energy needs.
Assessment of nutritive value of commiphora swynnertonii and its effects on cholesterol levels in rattus rattus
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Simon, Sikitu
Experimental studies to determine the chemical composition of the Commiphora swynnertonii as well as its effect in plasma cholesterol levels and weight changes in Rattus rattus. A total of 24 rats were used in the dose and time dependent experiments of resin, C. swynnertonii at (0 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg) on daily basis for 21 days. Six samples of root and stem bark were used in the proximate, selected minerals and heavy metals analysis by using AOAC (1995). Weekly weight measurement and plasma cholesterol levels were evaluated for each R. rattus. The results showed that the roots and stem bark of C. swynnertonii had significant difference in chemical composition (p < 0.05). Among the minerals analyzed Magnesium was the most abundant (996.30-1810.01 mg/100g). This plant was found to contain high fibre and carbohydrates. Results shows higher concentration of lead in stem bark (0.25 ppm) than in the root (<0.01 ppm) and the concentration of cadmium in the root and stem bark 0.01 ppm and 0.001 ppm respectively and for mercury the concentration was < 0.01 ppm for both roots and stem bark. There were significant differerence (p < 0.05) on cholestrol level and weight between the treated and the control groups. Commiphora swynnertonii resin lowered cholesterol level by 54%, 76% and 79% and weight changes by 18%, 31% and 23% for the exposed rats at concentrations of 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg respectively and at the higher doses showed side effect including diarrhoea and death. Based on the results, C. swynnertonii has shown potential important medicinal plant as it contain some anti-cholesterol properties reduces weight and induces diarrhoea even at low doses.
Assessment of pesticide exposure pathways on humans in Mang'ola ward, Karatu district-Arusha, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Mhauka, Arthur Bernard
A cross-sectional study was carried out in Mang’ola area in Lake Eyasi basin from October 2012 to February 2013 to assess pesticide exposure pathways to vegetable growers and consumers. A total sample size of 263 respondents was selected for the study. Baseline data for exposure pathway scenario, eating habits and quantities of vegetables consumed were collected using structured questionnaires, In-depth interview, Focus group discussion and observations. Health risk characterization was estimated based on FAO/WHO guidelines. Results showed an indiscriminate use of pesticides with limited knowledge on environmental contaminants and public health risks. About 61% of vegetable growers who applied pesticides once pests appeared on their grown vegetables, only 4.9% consulted the Agriculture Extension Officers. Up to 75.6% of vegetable growers mixed more than two types of pesticides and did not abide to basic safety procedures for pesticide application. Also 73.2% of pesticide applicators were not used personal protection devices. Ingestion of contaminated vegetables as the route of pesticide exposure to consumers had 53.7% and most consumed vegetables were onions and tomatoes (97.6%). Among the identified exposure pathways from pesticide contaminated fields were “take-home pathway”, “residential proximity pathway” and “contaminated wind spray drift exposure pathway” associated with direct dermal contact (68%) and inhalation (54%). Secondary retrieved pesticide residue concentrations data ranged from <0.01 to 18.10 mg/kg, those were organophosphates, organochlorines, pyrethroids, triazole and Triadimefonog-menol. The highest health indices were found for pyrethroids (0.96 ≈1) and organophosphate (5.9). Therefore, health hazards were by organophosphate since their Hazard Risk Index level exceeded 1, while pyrethroids level was likely to cause risk to exposed consumers. Most of the previous studies ended up with hazard identification and characterization but this study addressed exposure
Assessment of processing methods, sensory attributes, nutritional quality and safety of cassava leaves product (Isombe) in Rwanda
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Umuhozariho, Marie Goretti
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Cranz) leaves are cherished as a vegetable in Africa, but contain a toxic compound, cyanide. Studies were conducted to assess utilization, cyanide and nutritional value of cassava leaves after different preparation procedures in Rwanda. After a survey, leaves from bitter, sweet and wild cassava were: (1) pounded and cooked, (2) dried, pounded and cooked, and (3) pounded, dried and cooked. Drying was done to brittleness in a solar dryer after leaves were blanched. Sensory evaluation was done using a five point hedonic scale, where 5= like very much, 4= like moderately, 3= neither like nor dislike, 2= dislike moderately and 1= dislike very much. Cyanogens, vitamin C, P- carotene, crude protein, iron, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc and moisture content (dry weight basis) were determined in: (i) un-dried, (ii) dried, (iii) un-dried and cooked, and (iv) dried and cooked. Tire chemicals of dry stored samples were also monitored after three, six, nine and twelve months. Results showed that cassava leaves from the three species were consumed as food and sun-drying was a single method used by fanners to extend the storage life. Colour, taste, aroma, texture and overall acceptability were principally affected by processing procedures. Fresh and dry leaves were preferred as vegetable except when they were pounded after drying. After boiling for 30 minutes. cyanide level (40 mg HCN/kg) was above FAO/WHO recommendation (10 mg HCN equivalent/kg) in the relish, but was judged as safe for the fact that it is served in small quantities as side food, reducing the HCN by serving to minor levels in comparison to documented acute oral lethal dose of HCN for an adult (30-210 HCN/60 kg bodyweight). Except vitamin C, amounts of P-carotene, iron, calcium, phosphorus, potassium and zinc were considerable, averaging 340, 153,4264, 3531, 8426 and 54 mg/kg, respectively, and protein (34%) was high and valuable for cyanide human body detoxification. Stored, moisture increased significantly by 6.8% and shelf life was estimated at six months in water, air and light proof material. Further studies in Rwanda on cassava cyanide disorders and approximate safe quantities of cassava leaves relish are recommended.
Awareness of health risks as a result of consumption of raw milk in Arusha city and Meru district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Bukuku, Juma Ngasala
A cross-sectional study was conducted in Arusha city and Meru District Council, Tanzania, from October to December 2012, to assess the awareness of smallholder dairy farmers, milk vendors and milk retailers to milk quality and health risks associated with raw milk consumption. A total of 105 respondents were interviewed and milk samples collected for laboratory analysis. Laboratory assessment included physical and microbial quality using standard procedures and antibiotic residues using Delvotest. Questionnaire results indicated high level of awareness that consumption of raw milk could predispose consumers to health hazards. Among the health problems specified included tuberculosis and brucellosis. Nevertheless, majority of respondents used raw unboiled soured milk as fermented milk for sale. Plastic containers were commonly used for storage and transportation of milk. Milk pH below 6.6 was 35.2% and specific gravity below 1.028 g/ml was 13.3%. Mean Total Viable Count (TVC) of milk from vendors was higher than that from retailers and smallholder dairy farmers. Generally, 64.8% of milk samples assessed had higher TVC than the maximum recommended level of 2.0 x105 cfu/ml (East Africa Community standards). Commonly isolated bacteria were Staphylococcus aureus, E.coli, Pseudomonas spp. and Corynebacterium spp. All smallholder dairy farmers were aware of drug residues in milk and 97.1% complied with drug withdrawal periods. This possibly led to all milk samples analysed to be free from antibiotic residues. It is concluded that the level of awareness to milk quality is high, although practices associated with milking and post harvest handling practices along the value chain predisposes milk to microbial contamination. It is therefore recommended that public education should be given to all stakeholders in dairy industry on milking and post harvest handling of milk to minimize the likely losses due to rejection of spoiled milk and milk-borne dangers which may occur due to consumption of contaminated milk.
Basal Metabolic Rate and energy cost of performing farm activities in Magubike village, Kilosa District, Morogoro, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2008) Ocan, Hilda Ndanguzi
Determination of basal metabolic rate (BMR), energy cost of various farm activities, physical activity level (PAL), total energy expenditure (TEE), nutritional status and work capacity (VO 2 max) was done to examine their influence on farmer’s productivity. A cross sectional study involving 64 farmers was conducted on randomly selected households. Energy expenditure measurements were determined using the Douglas bag technique, VO 2 max was measured by the Rockport fitness test and nutritional status was assessed by BMI and Hb concentration. Analysis was done using student t - test, correlation analysis and regression analysis. Men’s BMR was 4.7± 1.12MJ/day while that of women was 4.34 ± 0.77 MJ/day. Farmers mean PAL was 2.13 ± 0.26. TEE in men was 10.24 ± 3.1 MJ/day and that of women was 8.57 ± 2.1 MJ/day. BMR, PAL and TEE were all higher in men than women. The measured energy cost of digging and weeding were 6.56 ± 1.25 kcal/min; 5.67 ± 1.28 kcal/ min in men and 6.60 ± 1.49 kcal/min; 6.21 ± 1.38 kcal /min in women. Women had a higher BMI (22.4± 3.7) than men (20.9 ± 2.1). Increase in BMI was associated with decrease in percent FFM (r = - 0.811, P < 0.01) but an increase in FM (r = 0.812, P < 0.01) and percent FM (r = 0.914, P < 0.01). VO 2 max of males (45 ± 6.54 ml/kg/min) was higher than females (36± 6.49 ml/kg/min). Haemoglobin (Hb) concentration was the highest predictor of VO 2 max at 39 %. The energy expenditure of rural farmers is high and can be used to determine energy requirements. Work capacity is determined by their nutritional status (BMI, Hb concentration and body composition). Therefore, emphasis on good nutrition and provision of nutrition education remains crucial to farmers whose livelihood depends on physical strength in agriculture production. Furthermore, energy expenditure studies are necessary to validate appropriate energy requirements for farmers in Tanzania
Behavioural determinants influencing the purchase of imported and locally made apparel among consumers in Dar es salaam, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Kereth, Gudila Ancelm
Behavioural determinants; namely cultural, social, personal, psychological and demographics influence consumers apparel purchase. However, there is scarce information about behavioural determinants and purchase of apparel among consumers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Hence, this study needs to explore the behavioural determinants influencing the purchase of imported and locally made apparel among consumers in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. The objectives of this study were: identifying the consumer demographic determinants that influence purchase of imported and locally made apparel; establishing the consumer purchase of imported and locally made apparel and examining the influence of behavioural determinants on the choice of apparel, choice of shopping outlets, quantity, apparel expenditure, frequency to purchase apparel and a model for behavioural determinants. The study adopted a cross-sectional analytical design. It involved a sampled population of 422 respondents (206 males and 216 females) aged above 18 years. Purposive sampling was used to select shopping outlets, while a systematic random sampling was used to select consumers for interview at the main outlets. Primary data were collected using a questionnaire and an interview schedule. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square, logistic regression and multiple linear regression while qualitative data were analysed based on themes and sub themes of the related variables. The results showed that 88.1% of the respondents purchased imported apparel of which 53.3% purchased apparel from second-hand apparel markets. The findings revealed that males were 1.693 less likely to purchase locally made apparel than females (/?=0.001). Respondents aged 18-25 ( jj -Q.OQ 1), 26-35 (p=0.018) and 36-45 (p=0.004) were less likely to purchase locally made apparel compared to respondents aged above 56 years. Moreover, respondents with Secondary (p=0.004), Certificate and Diploma (/?=0.029) education were less likely to purchase imported apparel compared to respondents with Bachelor degrees. The findings also revealed that 45% of behavioural determinants influenced respondents to purchase apparel. Cultural beliefs, social values, ethical and religious values, social status, social media, apparel loyalty, self-concept, perception and respondents' lifestyle were significant led respondents to purchase apparel. Cultural determinants were significant and less likely influenced respondents to go to shopping malls, second-hand apparel markets, boutiques and apparel shops to purchase apparel. Social, personal and psychological determinants significantly influenced respondents to choose shopping malls, apparel shops and second-hand markets to purchase apparel. Behavioural detenninants significantly influenced respondents on the quantity, apparel expenditure and the frequency of purchase of apparel (/?<0.05). A model for behavioural determinants was developed based on demographics, cultural, social, personal and psychological variables to provide insight towards the purchase of apparel. The study recommends that retailers should study the apparel market and supply apparel based on consumers' preferences. It is suggested that the government should set a policy intended to promote locally made apparel to public sectors, parastatal organisations and other NGOs to to wear on every Friday of the working day and on the national public events.
Biofuel production and food availability in Meru district, Arusha, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016) Mwakasege, N.
Jatropha cultivation for biofuel production in Tanzania started in 2006 and the process has kept on increasing. In Meru District it has continued through inter-cropping system, which can lead to food insecurity due to its competition with food crops in its growth requirements. A cross sectional research design was adopted in this study to examine how jatropha production as biofuel raw material influences food availability in the District. Overall, 232 male and 58 female farmers were involved. Wards Agricultural Officers and District Agricultural and Nutrition Officers were also involved. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 20. Household food security status was assessed using questions obtained from Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). Results show that: Food secure access was 16%, mildly food insecure access was 35%, moderately food insecure access was 46% and severely food insecure access was 3%. This means that communities were food insecure since only 16% were able to access food all the time. Jatropha cultivation was done in small scale whereby 2% of agricultural land was used for cultivation and 98% of agricultural land was for other crops. No biofuel production was done in the District since the responsible company for production was closed. We reject the null hypothesis that the production of jatropha as raw material for biofuel production will unlikely lead to food insecurity since there is reduction of number of bags of maize harvested in post jatropha production, the jatropha production did not generate income to 95% of the farmers since there was no market for the seeds and made farmers to abandon their plants even though the plants already occupy 2% of the agricultural land. So jatropha cultivation affects food availability, other factors which affect food availability are food price, government subsidies, rainfall, business, labour, distance to the market and land.