Theses and Dissertations Collection

Permanent URI for this collectionhttp://10.10.97.169:4000/handle/123456789/1007

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Assessing the implementation process of Treasury Single Account Operations and Payment Systems in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2020) Sarwatt, U.M
Anchored on stakeholder, management and modern money theories, study on which this dissertation is based assessed the implementation of Treasury Single Account (TSA) in Tanzania. The TSA infrastructure is usually implemented as part of the Financial Management Information System (FMIS) solutions. Therefore, this study assessed the implementation process of Treasury Single Account Operations and Payment Systems in Tanzania. Specifically, the study intended to; assess the legal and regulatory frameworks of the TSA operations; investigate the TSA processes and interbank systems; and examine the oversight mechanism of the TSA. Furthermore, the study employed a quantitative approach, whereby data were collected through a toolkit questionnaire with 44 questions from 60 sample size of respondents. Analysis was done descriptively, in which only frequencies and percentages were considered. In addition, graphs and tables were used to illustrate findings. The findings show the 68.2% of the overall performance in legal regulatory framework; this indicates the average performance as rating in this research. In the process and interbank systems, results show 75% of the overall performance based on the rating implies the effectiveness in this category is good. Lastly, the oversight mechanisms in results indicates 72% of the overall performance, this is categorized as good. Inferential analysis shows that all three predictors i.e. legal regulatory framework, process and interbank systems, and oversight mechanisms were statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05) to effective implementation of TSA. However, recommendations need the government to learn from other countries which have experienced the implementation of TSA operations for many years of time, the reason is to improve the overall performance of the implementation up to the highest rating score points.
Assessment of community participation in management of water resources in Moshi rural district, Kilimanjaro Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agricurture, 2022) Lyatuu, John M.
Community’s participation in the water resources management is of paramount importance as it contributes to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of water projects and also improving the family’s economy since family members will focus on production more than wasting time on fetching water. However, there is lack of enough information on local community’s participation in management of water resources (MWR) in poor resource countries such as Tanzania. The study on which this dissertation is based assessed local community’s participation in management of domestic water in East Old Moshi and Kimochi Wards in Moshi Rural District in Tanzania. The wards were purposively selected due to a number of water sources from slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, but still community members suffer from water shortage. Specifically, the study sought to: (i) determine the extent of participation of local communities in water resources management, (ii) assess water conservation measures applied by the local communities and (iii) assess institutional and socio-economic factors affecting community members’ choice of types of water conservation technologies. Structured interviews were applied as the main method of data collection whereby 150 respondents who were randomly selected from the two wards were interviewed. Collected data were analysed using quantitative and qualitative approaches. Chi-Square test was used to assess the association between respondents’ characteristics and participation in project activities (manual works and project meetings). In inferential analysis, Ordinal Logistic Regression and binary logistic regression was used to assess the factors associated with respondents’ participation in Water Resources Management (WRM) in general and factors influencing the households’ choice of Water Conservation Measures (WCMs) respectively. The ordinal logistic regression analysis results revealed a significant association between overall participation in WRM and respondents’ years of schooling and the days respondents had received water. Binary logistic regression revealed that choice of WCMs was significantly associated with the respondents’ age, marital status and distance to the household’s alternative sources of water. Based on the study findings, it is concluded that education is a major solution to many problems facing community members. Also WCMs applied in the study area depend on status of water availability of the particular place and season. From the findings and conclusions, the study recommends that, in order to improve application of WCMs to local communities, education should be provided especially to elders, people who reside in the upper parts of the community.
Assessment of the sustainability of agricultural technologies: a case of “bustani ya tushikamane” (ByT) Programme in Morogoro Region
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Mhando, Anna Leonard
The sustainability of agriculture technologies is a topic of growing importance in today's world, as the global population continues to expand, and the demand for food and resources escalates. The study aims to undertake a systematic assessment of the sustainability of agriculture technologies, with a focus on factors affecting sustainability and compliance of the technologies with the Agro ecological principles using the Agroecological Criteria Tool(ACT). The study employed cross-sectional research design with a sample size of 90 participants. Quantitative data was gathered through questionnaire, while qualitative data was collected through interview, focused group discussion (FGD) and observations. The analysis of the data involved both descriptive and inferential statistics, as well as thematic analysis of qualitative information. Factors like market availability (p = 0.000), training (p = 0.021), and cost of the agricultural technologies (p = 0.000) significantly predicted the likelihood of sustainability of agricultural technologies at 5% level of significance. Technologies introduced under the ByT programme were highly sustainable (60%), followed by medium sustainability (27.8%). The findings indicate that the agricultural techniques implemented by ByT have adhered to agroecological principles at every level, including efficiency (86%). This encompasses methods aimed at decreasing the use of resources such as water, pesticides, and fertilizers, while simultaneously enhancing crop yield. It is concluded that training, market availability, and cost of introduced agriculture technologies are crucial factors influencing sustainability of agricultural technologies. Also, the agriculture technologies introduced by ByT program are highly sustainable. This study offers a holistic perspective on the challenges and opportunities associated with sustainable agriculture technologies. The study concludes with recommendations that introduced agriculture technologies by stakeholders should consider the cost of introduced technologies, market availability of agriculture product and training of the technologies so as to ensure sustainability of those technologies. Also, need of future research and policy interventions to foster the sustainable adoption of agriculture technologies and advance the overall sustainability of the agricultural sector.
Capabilities of business development service providers’ in service delivery to small and medium enterprises in Arusha city and Moshi municipality
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Kweka, Anande Erasto
Despite the various interventions aimed at supporting Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Tanzania, the challenges facing their development have persisted. Business Development Services (BDS) providers have an instrumental role in MSMEs development. However, the question of capability of BDS providers and hence their effectiveness in delivering BDS to MSMEs is yet to be adequately addressed. The main objective of this study was to assess BDS providers’ capabilities in service delivery to MSMEs in Arusha City Council and Moshi Municipality. Specifically, the study analyzed BDSPs internal resources endowment, service delivery pathways and MSMEs absorptive capacity. Business Development Service Providers are recognized as public and private firms which provide a range of non-financial services to MSMEs. The study employed the cross-sectional design and mixed approaches namely qualitative and quantitative. A sample size of 254 MSMEs respondents was chosen using a simple random sampling technique and a sample size of 65 BDS providers were chosen using a purposive sampling technique. Primary data were collected using Key Informants Interviews (KII), a questionnaire survey, documentary review and focus group discussions (FGDs) methods. Qualitative data were analysed using content analysis and quantitative data were analysed using the Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS) software, for descriptive statistics including frequencies and percentages. The study results revealed that, most of the BDS providers had inadequate human resources to match the appropriate service delivery. However, MSMEs were highly satisfied with the personnel expertise and accessibility to services but they were dissatisfied with the costs of the service and increased operating expenses. Increased business operating expenses were caused by uncontrolled rent on business premises fluctuating transportations costs, raw material costs, and price fluctuations of raw materials. However, despite the inadequate resources of BDS providers, the impact of their services was significant in various MSMEs. The reported impacts derived from BDS provided to MSMEs were, increased ability to access inputs and loan, increased ability to run businesses and use of technology, increased yield and business diversification. The majority of BDS providers were private entities and mainly provided market access, provision of input supply, and alternative financing to MSMEs. This implies that most of the service providers in the study area w ere market oriented. However, there was a significant difference with regard to public BDS providers doing better in provision of infrastructure development and policy/advocacy because they are long lived and capital intensive. However, the most preferred service delivery pathways by BDS providers were training, seminars and workshop, technical demonstration centers and trade exhibitions, these were easier to organize and involved a large number of their clients. The findings also revealed the difficulty in determining the most appropriate pathway to follow in delivering BDS to MSMEs. The reasons being that in some cases, BDS providers used more than one delivery pathway. However, the study revealed a lack of generic service delivery pathway since each BDS provider has its own focus and work independently while MSMEs differed from one enterprise to another. Similarly, the study findings indicated that, the majority of MSMEs owners had secondary education and an experience of one to three years business management. Also, the majority of enterprises were micro with capital of more than or equal to Shs. <5million and more than or equal to < 5 employees. This indicates that, the majority of MSMEs had the capacity to identify appropriate BDS to meet their needs although an experience of 1-3 years in business management could impair their capacity to adopt to new knowledge timely. The findings also show that, the majority of enterprises were micro enterprises. This depicts low capital and therefore low ability to access and apply BDS for innovation, although they can access BDS through sponsored trainings, incubators and networking that allow sharing of resources and information. Similarly, it was observed that, despite the government's efforts to promote public BDS providers by providing incentives, access to BDS from these firms remained low, with only (39.8%) of MSMEs using their services. It is worth noting that, insufficient support and less accessibility of public BDS may impair development of MSMEs because of their low ability to purchase services from private service providers. In conclusion, capability of BDS providers is not only explained by capability of resources endowed because, in the study area the level of resources endowment differs from one BDSPs to another and the same applies to service delivery pathways. It was evident that effective BDS delivery depends on absorptive capacity of MSMEs to access and use delivered services. This implies that capability of BDS resources alone is not sufficient to enable successful service delivery, unless MSMEs are willing to access and utilize delivered services. Therefore, consideration of MSMEs absorptive capacity has to be taken seriously before development and delivery of BDS. This study advocates for policy makers to consider establishing guidelines which will be used to guide delivery of BDS. The government should also provide subsidies for private service providers who can invest and bring in appropriate technology to MSMEs. Subsidies should be attractive enough to compensate for the costs that may be incurred. In addition, policies such as minimum local content policies should be applied to motivate BDS providers to provide services to MSMEs particularly micro and small enterprises. This study has provided some empirical insights on the areas of focus and or future improvement to the MSMES policy of 2012 particularly on the business development service delivery standards and guidelines for service provision; such aspects are currently inadequately addressed.
Cassava value chain: willingness to pay for improved cassava planting material in coastal and Lake Victoria areas of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Maggidi, Issa, Majid
Lack of clean planting materials and use of Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) and Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD) infected planting materials has been the major constraints to cassava production thus communities need to be empowered to have a self-sustaining clean seed production system. Therefore, agricultural policies of the countries in Sub- Saharan Africa should therefore emphasize seed system strategies which would result in good quality seed of the right varieties being available. There are many factors that hinder cassava production among them is the unavailability of clean quality improved planting material. To overcome the challenge of unavailability of clean quality improved planting materials, it is envisaged that its production in large quantity and dissemination in affordable manner is imminent. The production of such planting materials could be done on commercial basis. Therefore, objective of this study was to assess i) the cassava demand for industrial consumption; ii) the supply base of cassava planting materials; iii) the cost of planting materials incurred by smallholding farmers in the study areas and iv) to determine willingness of smallholding farmers to pay for clean quality improved planting material (improved cassava seeds) when produced and made available to them on commercial basis. The study found that 0 percent of the respondents obtain cassava planting materials from formal seed system, 89 percent do use seed-system approved and released planting materials and 99 percent obtain planting materials from their own source. Also, it was not easy to directly determine the cost of planting materials per hectare, though based on the survey conducted to determine willingness to pay for clean quality improved cassava planting materials it was estimated that smallholding farmers in the study areas would pay TZS 62 500 per hectare to obtain clean quality improved cassava planting materials. It was also found that factors influencing the willingness to pay were age, household monthly income, agronomic cost and residential location. The study also revealed wide range of cassava varieties which are grown in the surveyed areas whereby some of them take long time to mature. The research implications of this study are that the demand for improved cassava seeds creates opportunity for further research into the area whilst the practical implications are that entrepreneurial opportunity is available for investment into commercial production. Socially the results of this study increase the knowledge that smallholding farmers are now willing to pay for improved cassava seeds. It was thus concluded that, although smallholding farmers showed willingness to pay for clean quality improved cassava planting materials when disseminated on commercial setting, the price they are willing to pay is much less compared to what is currently charged by commercial cassava planting materials producers under a pilot project are charging. Also, factors influencing willingness to pay were age, household monthly income, area under cassava cultivation, agronomic cost, CBSD disease attack, revenue from selling cassava, cassava selling price, industrial demand awareness, getting extension services, need for training and farming group membership. Smallholding farmers at Muheza district were more willing to pay compared to Kwimba and lastly Sengerema respectively. It was recommended that community based or commercial planting materials farms be established to ensure smallholding farmers obtain clean quality improved planting materials affordably and timely. It was recommended that a proper governance of the cassava value chain be put in place with measures such as establishing a cassava governing board and policy framework such as a Cassava Master Plan.
Challenges and motivational factors of reviving coffee cultivation among smallholder farmers: a case of Hai district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2021) M, Mathias Erick
This research investigated the status of coffee cultivation, motivational factors for reviving coffee cultivation and challenges which face smallholder coffee farmers in Hai district, Tanzania. A Cross-sectional research design was employed with a mixed method (quantitative and qualitative). Data was collected from 120 smallholder coffee farmers and 15 key informants from four villages. Household surveys and interviews were used for data collection. Analysis of quantitative data was done descriptively in which frequencies and percentages were measured. Inferential analysis, particularly the binary logistic regression model, was employed to determine the association between the dependent and independent variables. Qualitative data analysis involves a content analysis. The findings depict the state of coffee cultivation based on the following factors: starting year of cultivation, year of reviving, revived acreage, number of seedlings planted, and production in kilograms. The findings also show several motivational factors; availability of hybrid seeds, availability of free land provided by AMCOS, possibility of gap filling, assistance from organizations such as TaCRI and availability of extension services. Furthermore, the results show challenges in reviving coffee cultivation, such as high agricultural input costs, price fluctuations, a lack of manpower, a limited amount of land, and challenges associated with changing weather conditions. The study concludes that other respondents failed to revive coffee cultivation due to the mentioned challenges. Therefore, it is recommended that the government with cooperation with NGOs, TaCRI, and AMCOS should assist smallholder farmers to minimize or completely avoid the existing challenge.
Climate smart Agricultural practises and Food security: A case of Mbeya and Songwe regions in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2021) Bongole, Abiud J
Although Climate Smart Agriculture Practises (CSA-practises) have been promoted and implemented in the Tanzania, but usage of CSA-practises is still low while their impact on food security is not well documented, especially when used in combinations. This study examined the usage of different CSA-practises and their impact on food security among farming households in Mbeya and Songwe Regions in Tanzania with specific objectives to; a) assess the usage and intensity of using multiple CSA-Practises by farming households b) assess the determinants of using combinations of CSA-Practises by farming households c) evaluate the impact of using combination of crop rotation, residue retention and intercropping on food security d) evaluate the impact of using combination of organic manure, irrigation and drought tolerant maize seeds on food security and e) evaluate the impact of climate-smart irrigation practise on food security. Multistage sampling technique was employed in sampling 1443 farming households. A household survey was conducted whereby the primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire. The Household Dietary Diversity Score per Adult Equivalent Unit (HDDS/AEU) and Food Variety Score per Adult Equivalent Unit (FVS/AEU) were used as indicators to measure household food security. To assess the usage of the multiple CSA-practises a multivariate probit model was used while the ordered probit model was used to examine the intensity of using CSA-practises. A multinomial probit model was employed to estimate the factors influencing the use of combinations of CSA-practises (i.e. crop-rotation, crop residue retention and intercropping). To examine the impact of using a combination of CSA-practises (crop rotation, residue retention and intercropping), a multinomial endogenous switching regression model was employed. Furthermore, the study employed a multinomial endogenous treatment effect regression model to evaluated the impact of using organic manure, drought-tolerant maize seeds. and irrigation on food security. Furthermore, endogenous switching regression model was employed to evaluate the impact of using climate smart irrigation on food security. The evaluation methods used in this study are appropriate in the analysis of the control for both observed and unobserved heterogeneity. Other evaluation approaches such as propensity score matching and inversely probability-weighted regression (IPWR) can only control observed heterogeneity which leads to unbiased estimates. The results from multivariate probit (objective one) showed that the use of CSA-practises was positively influenced by gender of the head of the household, farm size, education of the head of household, location, size of the household, occupation, and farmer organizations membership. Moreover, it was found that the use of drought-tolerant maize seeds and crop rotation was positively associated while the use of a residue-retention and crop-rotation in combination, the use of organic manure and crop-rotation, combination of intercropping and residue-retention and the use of intercropping and organic manure were significantly and positively associated at significant level 1 %. This implies that farming households consider these combinations as complements. The study examined the determinants of farm households’ decision to use combinations CSA- practises (objective two) and found that production diversification, gender and livestock ownership were positively and significantly influence the usage of combinations of residue- retention and intercropping. In addition, education level and gender of the head of the household were positively and significantly affect in the usage of combination of crop rotation, crop residue and intercropping This comprehensive study is significant for finer understanding of the synergistic effect of interrelated CSA-practises. The result for objective three found that usage of CSA-practises depends on either it is used in isolation or in combinations, and the usage of these CSA-practises significantly increase food variety score per adult equivalent unit when used either singly or jointly. Furthermore, the use of intercropping in isolation show the highest food variety scores per adult equivalent unit among all the possible combinations of CSA-practises. Moreover, the use of crop rotation in isolation also showed a high pay off after intercropping followed by a joint combination of crop rotation and residue retention. Thus, the usage of a combination of crop rotation, intercropping and crop residue retention was found to be the best food security portfolio. Results from objective four found that the characteristics of the household, plot characteristics and institutional characteristics (e.g access to extension services) influences the usage of a different combination of CSA-practises. The study also found that the highest payoff of food security could be achieved when CSA-practises are used in combination than in isolation. The combination of drought-tolerant maize seeds and irrigation gave higher payoff than the combination of all three CSA-practises. Finally, the findings from objective five showed that radio ownership, education of the household head, farm experience, production diversity and livestock ownership were the determinants of using irrigation in the study area. The average treatment effect of the treated (ATT) and the average treatment effect of untreated (ATU) were positive and highly significant for irrigators and non-irrigators. That is, the use of irrigation as a CSA-practise has improved food security of the farming households. It is recommended that, inorder in order to enhance the usage of CSA-practise, policy makers and local government authorities should target equipping extension workers and other agricultural practitionners with adequate items of infrastructure that enable their easy movement to the farmers. In addition, more more extension agents should be trained and deployed in the country to reduce the workload of the limited number of extension officers available inoder to improve agricultural productivity and food security The study calls for policy makers on policies and plans that promote CSA-practises as a combination, including other interrelated practises which upscaling CSA-practises usage. Furthermore, there is a need to promote the usage of CSA-practise in isolation or in combination. In addition, the study suggests that based on the practises considered in this study, usage of a combination of various practises results in better food security compared to the usage of these practises individually. This suggests that agricultural practitioners should promote combinations of CSA-practises to improve food security in the farming households. It is recommended that policymakers should consider rehabilitating the existing irrigation schemes while constructing new irrigation schemes to widen the impacts of irrigation to household food security. However, despite the positive impact of irrigation, it is recommended that other irrigation practises such as drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation should be used in the areas where construction of small-scale irrigation is not possible.
Communities’ consideration underlying valuation of agricultural land: A case study of Lushoto district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2015) Michael, Werenfrid
A study was conducted in Lushoto, District, Tanzania to identify farmers’ perceived agricultural land value determinants to establish determinants for agricultural land valuation across different land use types. Remote sensing and GIS techniques were used to identify dominant agricultural land uses for screening the agricultural land value determinants across the land uses. Household survey, key informant interview, and focus group discussions were used to explore farmers’ criteria. Content analysis was used to transform verbal information into numerical data to examine the agricultural land value determinants. Relative Importance Index was used to determine the relative agricultural land value with respect to land uses, agricultural land value determinants, and land types. Binary logistic regression was used to establish relationships between farmers’ perceived agricultural land value and determinants. Dominant identified agricultural land uses were: agroforestry (41% – 60%), crop cultivation (13% – 43%), woodlots (2% – 8%) on the hills and sloping lands, vegetable cultivation (8% – 12%) in the valley bottoms and, open spaces and settlements (1% – 9%) on the lower slopes. Land under vegetable cultivation was highly valued with Relative Importance Index (RII = 0.76), followed by agroforestry (RII = 0.64), woodlot (RII = 0.6), crop cultivation (RII = 0.59), and Open spaces and settlements (RII = 0.38). Valley bottoms were the most valued lands (RII of 0.853) when compared to other lands. Farmers’ identified physical and social-cultural determinants for valuation of agricultural land were: topography, soil fertility, nearness to water, nearness to road, aesthetic, heritage, and management practice(s). Farmers’ perceived determinants that were significantly higher (p < 0.05) across the land uses were nearness to water, nearness to road, soil fertility, aesthetic, heritage, and management practices. Agricultural land valuation involving farmers is a new paradigm shift in the land valuation process, hence further studies are recommended in diverse agro-ecosystems landscapes.
Community perception and participation in agricultural projects in Kishapu district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) MA.
This study focuses on community perceptions and participation in agricultural projects in Kishapu District, emphasizing the need for understanding both positive and negative perceptions. The motivation behind the need of such understanding is that perception towards development projects being introduced or implemented in an area tends to differ among community members, with some projects being perceived negatively and others positively. Community members are more likely to participate if they have a positive perception about the project in question. Therefore, there is a need of understanding the drivers for community perception and drivers for community participation in development projects. Specifically, the study aimed at understanding the community perceptions towards agricultural projects (1st part of the study) and the influence of other socio-economics of the community on participation in agricultural projects (2nd part of the study), using Kishapu District as a case. Data were collected from 100 respondents through questionnaire survey, and from 6 participants through key informant interview and focus group discussion. Descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression model, multiple linear regression model and content analysis were employed for data analysis. Results show that, most of the respondents had a positive perception toward agricultural projects because the projects contribute to community development. Drivers of positive community perception are involvement in previous agricultural projects, education, access to information and farm size. Therefore, community perception toward agricultural projects hinges on the extent to which similar projects have benefited the community in the past. For levels of community participation in agricultural projects the findings revealed that most of the respondents (92%) fall under the category of low level of participation, 6% of medium level and only 2% for high level of participation. Regarding the factors influencing community participation, findings show that variables such as household member information, farm size and involvement in previous projects has a significant influence (p>0.05) on community participation. This study thus recommends that principal investigators of agriculture based development projects must ensure that targeted beneficiaries really benefit in the entire course of their project implementation since community perception toward agricultural projects depends on the past experience from the previous projects’ performance. Social and institutional benefits accruing from participation in agricultural projects include; agricultural knowledge and skills, farmer cooperatives formation or strengthening, participation in decision making, contributing ideas in farmers groups' meetings and economic gains. Thus, to achieve positive community perceptions towards agricultural projects there is a need for project implementers to ensure that projects improve people’s living standards. Moreover, there is a need to ensure community members are well informed of the projects regardless of their literacy level and that innovative practices to benefit farmers regardless of their farm sizes are promoted.
Contribution of free primary education to rural livelihood in Mvomero District, Morogoro
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Habibu, Jumanne Ally
After the implementation of free education policy in Tanzania studies to examine its impact were conducted. From these studies, however, have scarcely looked into the contribution of free primary education to rural livelihood in Mvomero District. This study sought to assess the contribution of free primary education to rural livelihood in Mvomero District. The study was guided by three objectives which were to examine the extent to which free primary education is free, to assess rural parent`s perceptions of relief from financial burden following the abolition of fee and other mandatory contributions and to determine contribution of the free primary education to rural livelihood in Mvomero District. The study used a sample of 100 respondents. Interviews, Focus-group Discussions and document review were used to collect data. Descriptive statistics and paired samples t-test were used during data analysis. Key findings showed that 80% of the parents claimed that primary education is free education as tuition fee and mandatory contributions have been removed. Furthermore, the findings show that 88% of the parents felt relieved from financial burden associated with tuition fee, extra studies, building contribution, electricity, registration and watchman. Unfortunately the findings did not indicate that parents had relief of burden on the cost of food and water. Likewise the findings revealed that livelihood of parents were improved in reducing conflicts among parents (Mother and Father), good relationship between teachers and parents. Based on these results, it is concluded that, free primary education has remarkable contribution to rural livelihood in Tanzania. The study however recommends that free primary educations should be promoted, restructured and improved to fulfill society livelihood.
Contribution of non-governmental organizations in promoting girls’ education in secondary schools in Morogoro District council, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Chengula, M. S.
The gap between girls and boys in education still exists in Tanzania despite the sustained efforts made by the Government and NGOs. Due to this, several studies on NGOs and girls education were conducted and revealed different supports and activities done by NGOs to solve the problem. But the question on how the NGOs’ support and activities have contributed to girls’ education is not yet answered. Therefore, a cross sectional study was conducted to assess the contribution of NGOs a case of CAMFED in promoting girls’ education in secondary schools. Specifically, the study aimed to examine the support provided by CAMFED in promoting girls’ education among secondary school students, to determine the contribution of CAMFED support to girls’ access to education and to examine challenges encountered by CAMFED in promoting girls’ education in the study area. A total of 108 respondents were involved in the study. Data were collected through questionnaires, in depth interviews, observation and documentary review. The findings indicate that CAMFED offered learning materials, hostel fees, sanitary protection, uniforms, school contributions, school fees, bicycles, solar lamp and pocket money in supporting girl students. The support contributed to the increased number of the girls who were enrolled in secondary schools and in lowering their dropout rates. Despite the positive contribution in enrollment and dropout the study shows a non-positive change in academic performance of girls in the surveyed schools. However, it was noted during the study that CAMFED face nepotism challenges, misuse of funds, lack of cooperation from parents, inadequate financial resources to attend all students in need and lack of commitment among the beneficiaries of the programme. The study suggests to the Government, NGOs, TASAF, institutions and other stakeholders to complement CAMFED’s efforts by bringing in other services such as building hostels, motivational and counseling seminars to students and improving teaching environment in schools.
Contribution of rural electrification to household income in Moshi district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2015) Kidole, Valerian Vitalis
Tanzania is among the countries with lower rural electrification rates. It is estimated that less than five percent of the rural population are using grid electricity services. This study assesses the contribution of rural electrification to household income in Moshi District, Tanzania. Specifically, the study aimed at identifying income generating activities undertaken using grid electricity, assessing the contribution of grid to household income as well as identifying the challenges in utilization of grid electricity services in income generating activities. A multistage sampling technique was used to select a total 120 (60 with grid and without grid services respectively) respondents for the study. The study identified among others, iron wedding, compact disc burning and grain milling as income generating activities influenced by presence of grid electricity. The household annual income ranged from 800 000 Tshs to 46 000 000 Tshs and there were statistically significant differences in income between households with grid electricity services and those without. In addition, the study identified reliability of services, high application standards, and higher bill as challenges associated with grid electricity services. The study concludes that grid electricity contributes to increased household income. Furthermore, the study recommends that, the government and development partners should secure necessary financial resources to invest in rural electrification.
Contribution of world vision towards improving child welfare services: a case of Magole area development program, Morogoro region, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Macha, D. T.
The study aimed at assessing the contribution of child welfare services provided by World Vision, Tanzania at Magole Area Development Program (ADP). Its specific objectives were to assess the types of child welfare services rendered by World Vision Tanzania at Magole ADP, to analyze the needs of the children at ADP Magole, to evaluate the contribution of WV in the program and to assess the determinants of satisfaction of the program. The study adopted multistage sampling also known as multi-stage cluster sampling technique in which structured questionnaire with open and closed ended questions and key informants interviews were used to collect primary data from a sample size of 110 respondents. Then Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16 was used for analysis of data. It involved the use of logit regression modal and descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages which are presented in tables. The findings of the study showed that the world vision Magole ADP organization has a top- down approach when it comes to selecting and registration of sponsored children to planning the implementation of their projects. The program provides material stuffs to children such as bed sheets, mosquito nets, exercises books and soap. This created classes among participants and non-participants. There were some non-participants who really required the services, but could not receive because they were not selected or registered by the organization. There are some children who really live in poor conditions but were not selected. The study recommends the government and other NGO’s to work hand in hand with world vision to serve children who missed the opportunity to be in the program by promoting and implementing sustainable development projects that will ensure promising wellbeing to the children.
A critical discourse analysis of project planning in Maasai community in Mvomero District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Palanda, N. R.
This study employed a Fairclough framework of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to uncover the way socio-cultural practices within Maasai community are constructed by the used discourses in project planning. Three sets of research questions guided the study: (i) What are the leading discourses used in the documents related to project implemented in the Maasai community?; (ii) How ideas and discourses related to pastoralists are produced, by whom and under who interest and in what context?; and (iii) what are the effects of discursive representation of pastoralists in a wider socio-cultural context? The study used qualitative research approach that employed CDA as an underlying methodology in an analysis of the eight project documents for the projects implemented in Maasai community in Mvomero District. In this study, CDA provided a sociological explanation of language used in the project documents with particular interest in “ideology, social relations and the relationship between text and context”. This study found that leading discourses within the analyzed documents were grounded within three broad themes: pastoralism as a problematic livelihood; nomadic lifestyle and culture; and pastoralist’s relationship with other social groups. In all of these themes, the study revealed an overwhelmed negative representation of the Maasai community. This study revealed further that the discourses used in interventions developed as a means to respond to Maasai community challenges are produced, distributed and consumed in the way that responds more to the interests of project staff and funding agencies rather than Maasai community. Further analysis found three categories of constructive effects that are attributable to the discourses used in project planning in Maasai community: identity constructive effects; social relation construction effects; and ideational function effects. The identified constructive effects were also dominated by misconceptions and negative perceptions of pastoralists that continue to marginalize them and their livelihood. The study concludes that this kind of representation iii can be regarded as misleading on Maasai community socio-cultural context which further may undermine efforts aimed at addressing different challenges associated with Maasai peoples’ welfare. Therefore, this study suggests a critical review of any development model on its relevancy on the particular environment before its adoption in development actions in the Maasai community. In addition, there should be an effective public information campaigns to help people understand and changing people’s mindset on the past longstanding drawn misconceptions in the Maasai community. Furthermore, this study suggests a full analysis on cultural, socio-economic benefits as well as political implications of the designed plans in Maasai community instead of relying only on economic aspects. Also the Maasai should be centered in local and national discourses that relate to their economic and socio-cultural contexts.
Drivers and socio-economic determinants of smallholder farmers’ Sisal productivity: a case of Korogwe District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2021) Beleko, Azizi H
The importance of sisal to the communities, nation and globe at large has stimulated the government to introduce various efforts so as to increase both participation by smallholder farmers and their productivity. Such efforts include the government entering into partnerships with various companies to establish a sisal nucleus settlement scheme responsible for developing business plans to set up marketing and processing arrangements for sisal grown by smallholder farmers. However, it is yet to be clearly determined as to which factors determine smallholder farmers’ participation in sisal production as well as socio-economic determinants of smallholder farmers for sisal productivity. The current study aimed at determining the drivers for smallholder farmers’ participation in sisal production as well as socio-economic determinants of smallholder farmers’ sisal productivity in Korogwe District specifically Ngombezi and Mwelya Wards. The study adopted a cross-sectional research design whereby data were collected once from Ngombezi and Mwelya Wards, Korogwe District, Tanzania. The wards (Ngombezi and Mwelya) were purposively selected due to availability of many smallholder sisal producing households. A total of 150 randomly selected households based on registers availed by estate managers in Ngombezi and Mwelya Wards participated in this study. Primary data were collected through questionnaire, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Quantitative data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics whereby descriptive and inferential statistics were determined. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic content analysis whereby collected information were summarized based on themes and objectives of the study. Results show that the average farm size allocated to sisal within the district was 8.6 ha while the average households’ sisal yields was 0.62 tons/ha. In addition, Mwelya Ward had higher average households’ sisal yield (0.64 tons/ha) compared to Ngombezi Ward (0.61 tons/ha). Results further show that drivers significantly associated with household’s choice to produce sisal as a first crop were transport mode (P≤0.1), labour amount (P≤0.05) and lastly, financial support (P≤0.1). In addition, the smallholder sisal farmers were faced by some challenges mainly infrastructural challenges (13%), financial constraints (11.3%) and poor farm inputs availability (9.8%). Results further show that factors significantly associated with sisal productivity were size of land allocated to sisal (P≤0.001), crops produced as first choice (P≤0.1) and finally, a household’s main source of income (P≤0.05). In addition, factors determining smallholder farmers’ sisal profitability were sex of the household head (P≤0.1), size of land (P≤0.05) and amount of sisal harvested (P≤0.001). Therefore, the study recommends that smallholder sisal farmers should adopt improved farming techniques and practices that will enable them to improve their productivity. In addition, agricultural and investment banks should consider financing smallholder sisal farmers so as to enable them increase their productivity and this will in turn stimulate an increase in number of smallholder farmers in sisal production.
Effectiveness of participatory monitoring and evaluation on achievement of community-based water projects in Chamwino District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Mgoba, S. A
Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) is increasingly becoming critical worldwide. In Tanzania like other countries in Sub Saharan Africa, community participation in monitoring and evaluation in development projects including water projects has been top on the development agenda. Nevertheless, the extent of effectiveness of PM&E in influencing achievement of community-based water projects remains unclear. To that effect, the general objective of this study was to determine effectiveness of PM&E on achievement of community-based water projects. The study employed sequential exploratory cross-sectional research design with two phases. In this design, qualitative data, using key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), were first collected and analyzed and the results were used to refine questionnaire used in the second phase of data collection that adopted a household survey. A random sample of 120 water users including 53.3% females were involved in the survey. Qualitative data were analyzed using content analysis while quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS. A Summated Index Scale was used to measure the extent of water users’ participation in monitoring and evaluation, level of achievement of water project objectives and effectiveness of participatory monitoring and evaluation in influencing achievement of community-based water projects. In addition, Chi-square test was used to measure association between level of participation and level of achievements of water project objectives. The results show that PM&E was effective in ensuring achievement of long community-based water projects by allowing more space for primary beneficiaries through decision-making power in the management of water projects. Furthermore, the results showed that among of the strategies available in PM&E was establishment of responsible structures for project supervision such as Village Water Committees, Community Water Supply Organizations iii (COWSOs) and capacity building. The results demonstrated that 53.3% of the respondents showed high level of participation in monitoring and evaluation (M&E). In addition, the results showed that PM&E was constrained by various challenges such as lack of knowledge among community members in implementation of M&E and poor leadership in the village in facilitating community participation. Furthermore, the results revealed that there was statistically significant difference in association between extent of overall participation in monitoring and evaluation and extent of objectives achievement (P<0.05). The study concludes that PM&E is a tool for ensuring long term achievement of community-based water projects through promoting community empowerment hence creates sense of ownership of development projects among stakeholders. The study recommends sensitization of awareness of importance of PM&E in implementation of water projects at a local level is needed. The study also recommends further empirical research to determine factors affecting enhancement of human capacities in managing water projects at a local level. This will be worth for water policy planning and implementation.
Effectiveness of small holder farmers adaption strategies in Improving well being in light of climate change in Iringa district Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016) Kihupi, Mary Lujabiko
Climate change is happening and poses significant challenges to households, businesses carried against impact of climate change by smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas of Iringa District but little is known about their effectiveness in improving smallholders’ well-being. The overall objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of adaptation strategies in a changing climate and climate variability in semi-arid areas of Iringa District. Specifically, the study examined smallholder farmers’ perceptions towards climate change, identified smallholder farmers’ adaptation strategies against impacts of climate change, explored barriers to smallholder farmers’ adaptation strategies, and examined the effectiveness of adaptation strategies as is being reflected in smallholder farmers’ well-being. The research design was cross sectional. A multistage sampling procedure was applied to select divisions, wards, villages based on their climatic conditions. A total of 240 respondents were drawn randomly from eight villages. Data were collected through household survey, key informant interviews, observation and focus group discussions methods. Meteorological data were collected from Tanzania Meteorological Agency. Quantitative data were analyzed through SPSS and qualitative data through content analysis. Instant Statistical Packages for Agro climatological data was used in analyzing the 54 years meteorological data of Nduli meteorological station in Iringa District. The findings revealed that smallholder farmers perceived climate change in terms of change in temperature, changes in rainfall, increase in drought condition and increase in malaria and crop pests and diseases. Change in The findings also show that smallholder farmers were adapting to impact of climate rainfall pattern, temperature pattern atjd occurrence of pests and diseases had significant impact on smallholder farmers’ households whose livelihood depends on rain-fed farming. and governments. Different adaptation strategies are and households. Ismani and Pawaga Divisions of Iringa District were purposively selected iii change through irrigation, crop diversification, planting early maturing maize varieties, planting drought resistant crops, changing of planting dates, and agriculture diversification and non-farm activities. Barriers to smallholder farmers’ adaptation strategies identified were unreliability of information on weather forecast, lack of access to agricultural extension services, and limited access to water for irrigation. Other barriers were lack of capital, lack of access to affordable credit institutions, lack of farm assets (plough and tractors), and cost of agricultural inputs. In addition, the results revealed that there were relationships between age, income and barriers to adaptation strategies. Existences of those barriers hindered effective implementation of adaptation strategies in the study area. The findings revealed that some of the adaptation strategies to impact of climate change such as change in planting dates, planting early maturing maize varieties, irrigation, application of fertilizer, and involving in petty business had positive influence on smallholder farmers’ well-being (p<0.05). This means that those adaptation strategies which had positive influence on smallholder farmers' well-being were effective against impact of climate change. Government and other stakeholders should facilitate adaptation by enabling farmers to overcome barriers reported in this study. The government of Tanzania and other stakeholders should also help smallholder farmers by supporting them in those adaptation strategies which proved to be effective to impact of climate change.
Factors influencing community participation in donor funded projects: experiences from padep community projects in Morogoro District, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2019) Samata, M. M.
Community participation in implementation and development projects has become a topical agenda. Morogoro District is one among the districts in Tanzania where Participatory Agricultural Development and Empowerment Projects implemented. The main objective of the study was to assess the factors influencing community participation in PADEP community projects. Specifically, the study sought to: determine the level of the community’s participation in PADEP community projects, examine the community’s attitude towards PADEP community projects and determine the overall impacts of PADEP community projects to the community. Across-sectional research design adopted for undertaking the study. A multi-stage sampling was employed whereas purposeful sampling technique used to select four villages i.e. Kiziwa, Mtombozi, Tulo and Kongwa, followed by proportional sampling to get households from each village, and random sampling method to obtain a sample size of 138 households. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect primary data by administering questionnaires, undertaking focus group discussions and key informants’ interview. Quantitative data were analyzed by the statistical package for social sciences, and qualitative data were analyzed by using content analysis. The study findings revealed that the level of participation in PADEP community projects was relatively low especially in project identification and designing stages. Nevertheless, about 93.5% of respondents had positive attitudes towards PADEP projects because of associated benefits, including rise of household income. Study results, also indicated that implemented PADEP community projects made some impacts to households’ livelihood, include assets ownership, income as well as food security improvement. Furthermore, some independent variables had statistical significant influence on community participation, including respondent’s previous experience in projects participation (p≤0.05), household size, household income per year before the project (p≤0.1), level of satisfaction (p≤0.01), awareness / information (p≤0.1) and existence of village rules and regulation on participation (p≤0.05). In conclusion, there is positive and strong relationship between previous experience and community participation; household income and community participation; awareness and community participation. Considering the importance of community participation, study suggests that all obstacles including project’s experience, awareness and household income which hinder community participation should be well addressed by the project implementers for the success and sustainability of the projects.
Functionality of primary health facility governing committees in implementing direct health facility financing in Tanzanian local government authorities
(Sokoine university of agriculture, 2022) Kesale, Anosisye Mwandulusya
The Alma Ata Declaration of 1978 identified community participation in health service delivery as a cornerstone component for improving Primary Health Care (PHC). Therefore, it advocated for providing opportunities for health service users/communities to directly participate in the designing, implementation and monitoring of healthcare facility operations. To incorporate communities in the planning, implementation and evaluation of primary health care services, community governance structures known as Health Facility Governing Committees (HFGCs) were established in Lower and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). These HFGCs are composed of community members devolved with powers and functions of representing the community in the governance of health service delivery in primary health care facilities (PHCF). There have been continued efforts to strengthen community participation through having functional HFGCs to improve health service delivery in PHCF through decentralization. The fiscal decentralization is the reform currently adopted by many LIMCs countries to empower both community governance structures and service providers in improving health service delivery at the PHCF. Tanzania, like other LIMCs countries, is implementing fiscal decentralization through Direct Health Facility Financing (DHFF) to empower service providers and deepen the community’s participation in the planning, implementing and monitoring PHCF to improve health service delivery. However, the status of the HFGCs' functionality in accomplishing their assigned powers and responsibilities under DHFF is not known. This study was conducted to assess the functionality of HFGCs under the DHFF context in selected Tanzania Local Government Authorities. Specifically, the study assessed (i) the functionality level of HFGC in primary public health facilities under DHFF; (ii) the accountability of HFGCs in the public primary health facilities under DHFF and (iii) the perceived factors determining the functionality of HFGCs under DHFF. A cross-sectional research design was used in which both qualitative and quantitative data were collected simultaneously or at one data collection phase to assess the performance of HFGCs. The sampling of the regions, councils and health facilities is based on the President Office-Regional Administration and Local Government's Star Rating Assessment of the performance of all public primary healthcare facilities in Tanzania, which was accomplished at the beginning of 2018, that is, the same year DHFF started. The sample size for this investigation was determined using a four-stage multistage cluster sampling process. In the first stage, four regions were purposefully chosen based on their performance (two regions high and two low performance). From each region chosen in stage one, two councils were chosen in the second round. One of the two councils chosen had a low and another with high performance in the area based on the star rating assessment. Four health facilities were purposively selected from each council selected. Two health facilities were chosen because of their low and other two health facilities because of the high performance in the council. The location of the facility and council was also a criterion to accommodate the diversity of the council and health facilities. In stage four, respondents for the structured questionnaire were selected proportionally from each HFGC in which the response was 280 respondents. Respondents for interview and focus group discussion were purposively selected. The participants were chosen for interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) based on their ability to provide relevant information about the performance of HFGCs under DHFF. Therefore, for a respondent to be included in the interview and FGDs was supposed to be a member of HFGC implementing DHFF. The point of saturation determined the number of interviews and FGDs. The closed-ended structured questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data from each selected member of the HFGCs. The Open Data Kit (ODK) software was used to develop the data gathering software (database). To collect data, a quantitative approach based on mobile data collecting (MDC) was used. Data were captured via mobile phones and then transferred to a central server. The response rate for HFGCs who filled out the questionnaire was 280 respondents. Qualitative data were collected through interviews and FGDs. In- depth interviews were conducted with HFGC chairpersons to examine the extent they have been accomplishing the HFGC mandates under DHFF settings. On the other hand, FGDs were conducted with other members of HFGCs excluding the HFGC chairpersons. Quantitative data were coded, processed and analysed by using IBM-SPSS v. 25. In assessing the functionality of HFGCs under DHFF context, Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse data. A binary logistic regression model was employed to determine factors associated with HFGC functionality. To assess the accountability of HFGCs under DHFF implementation, the descriptive statistic and binary logistic regression were employed based on the HFGCs accountability index or predictors of accountability. To assess the perceived factors determining the performance of HFGCs, Relative Importance Indices (RII) within Multiple regression were employed. The findings from this study HFGC functionality under DHFF was found to be good at 78.57 %. Specifically, 87.14 % of HFGCs were found to have good functionality in mobilizing communities to join Community Health Funds, 85 % were good at participating in the procurement process, 81.43 % were good at discussing community health challenges and 80% were good at planning and budgeting. However, there was a difference in functionality among HFGCs, with HFGCs from primary health facilities that indicated a high-performance during star rating assessment in 2018 having relatively good functionality, scoring 79.45 %, as opposed to HFGCs from primary health facilities that had a low performance, scoring 73.88 %. Regarding accountability, the HFGCs indicated good performance scoring 78 %. HFGCs were found to have a high level of accountability in terms of encouraging the community to join community health funds (91.71%), participating in receiving medicines and medical commodities (88.57%), and timely provision of health services (84.29%). The HFGC's responsibility was shown to be substantially associated with the health planning component (p=0.0048) and the financial management aspect (p=0.0045). Furthermore, the study found that the factors which are more important for the functionality of HFGCs are the availability of finance to the health facility with RII 0.8964 score which ranked the first important determinant of HFGC performance, followed by the clarity of powers and functions with RII 0.8928 score, as second important determinant, and communication between the HFGCs and community with RII 0.8792 score, as a third important determinant. The reality from the findings of this study on fiscal decentralization through DHFF in selected HFGCs supports the idea that decentralization empowers subnational health actors since the performance of HFGCs in health facilities implementing DHFF was found to be good. This study implies that the setting and how fiscal decentralization is implemented are critical for determining whether or not it empowers actors. Therefore, for HFGCs to be empowered and be able to better perform their duties and responsibilities, the context and the characteristic of HFGC member are key determinants. It is therefore recommended that, the government review educational level for the members of HFGCs, timely transfer funds to the health facilities, conduct comprehensive training to the members of the HFGCs on how to carry out their functions and increase the number of prime vendors.
A gender analysis of crop value chains in Chamwino and Kilosa Districts, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Mnimbo, T. S.
Gender issues fundamentally shape the totality of production, distribution, and consumption within an economy but have often been overlooked in value chain development. The current study adopted a cross-sectional study design and was carried out in Chamwino and Kilosa districts. The study’s overall objective was to undertake a gendered analysis in investigating smallholder farmers’ participation in the crop value chains, in Chamwino and Kilosa Districts in Tanzania. Specifically, it aimed at analyzing the influence of gender roles in upgrading strategies on multiple-commodity food value chains, assessing the gendered impact on food securing upgrading strategies using different gender tools, analysing gender in asset ownership and participation in market oriented crop value chains and determining pathways of addressing gender based constrains for equitable and sustainable participation in profitable crop value chains. The selection of the study sites was based on their agro-ecological characteristics, a balance of matrilineal and patrilineal societies, levels of food crop commercialization, availability of infrastructure, and accessibility to regional thus enabling a good comparison all together. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire from 600 randomly selected households and complemented with focus group discussions and key informants interviews. The sampling involved purposive sampling techniques. In the analysis the influence of gender roles in upgrading strategies on multiple-commodity food value chains were computed. The findings show that crops commonly grown in the two study districts are maize (Zea mays) and sesame (Sesamum indicum) are widely grown in Kilosa, while bulrush millet and groundnut are grown in Chamwino, 50% of these crops produced are sold. The results show that in Kilosa there was no difference between men and women in relation to upgrading strategies related to natural resources, in contrast to Chamwino District where a statistical difference between male and female farmers was iii observed. The results further show that female farmers in Chamwino are more concerned about processing and storage, with more than 50% of female farmers indicating processing and storage to be a problem compared to 26% of male farmers, implying that women in Chamwino are highly involved with processing and storage tasks or are more affected by processing and storage constraints than men. A closer look at the three value chain nodes (production, processing and marketing) shows that the main constraints relate to natural resources and production. Between 76% and 95% of the respondents indicated these as leading concern, followed by processing between 20% and 53% and lastly, the marketing node between 28% and 37%. The study concludes that gender difference in the choices of crops is associated with the impact and role of the particular crop on the respective gender, for example cash crop or food crop. The study further concludes that women and youth in both regions are the ones heavily involved in the lower end of value chain components such as production, processing and storage.The study further concludes that there is a strong association between MHH and FHH asset ownership and food crop commercialization and that although asset ownership is crucial, but not all assets serve the same purpose or same importance. On removing GBC the study concludes that the intention to remove GBC in value chain is iterative since most GBC involves multiple factors, therefore it is important to identify context specific strategies to ensure that the GBC are addressed. Lastly it can be concluded that both male and female headed households are forced into food crop commercialization due to wealth situation.At the household level, men are recommended to recognize how women are burdened by the activities in the household and create a better chance for women to participate in value chain activities by allowing them to make choices on their preferred crop and to take part in the decision making. The present study further recommends the Local Government Authority and project planners to consider youth as a gender group with the potential to drive the economic development through crop commercialization. The Local Government Authority and the MHH should consider gender aspects on matters concerning land ownership because it hinders effective participation.

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