College of Forestry, Wildlife and Tourism

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Variation, association and Inheritance of morphological and wood characters in an improvement programme for eucalyptus dsglupta blume
(Australian National University, 1972-03) Davidson, John
DAVIDSON, J. (1972) Variation, association and Inheritance of morphological and wood characters In an Improvement programme for Eucalyptus dsglupta Blume. Ph.D. Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia. Up to 93 percent of variation In the wood of 20-year-old Eucalyptus dsglupta Bl. has been explained by four components of a principal components analysis. Fibre cross-sectional characters were the main parameters contributing to this variation. Dens Ity satisfactorily represented the main and one subsidiary component which, together, represented 70 per cent of the total variation. Density was easy to measure and had a phenotypic variation of about 20 per cent of the mean value.. It had a broad sense herltabillty of 0.68 ± 0.17 and a narrow sense herltablllty of 0.44 ± 0.23 In seedling material. Density could be modified Irrespective of growth rate and stem form In trees 14-20 years old. Hence wood density Is a very suitable factor for Including In a tree Improvement programme.
Factors affecting the consumption of working time and the strain on the worker in some
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1975) Harstela, Pertti
The purpose of the study was to formulate an ergonomic model for forest work to serve as frame of reference for theoretical and empirical analysis, to examine the correlations of independent variables in play in forest work such as human, conditions and working method variables with consumption of working time and the physical strain on the worker. The investigation was confined in the empirical material to the cutting of roll-seedlings and the lifting of seedlings in the nursery-, and to the cutting of pulpwood by two working methods, i.e. mediumheavy and heavy work. The final aim was to formulate and test hypotheses of forest work science, postulate new hypotheses and outline an overall theory on the basis of systems analysis. An additional special object was to study the application of the principle of comparative time study in an empirical material and to apply the same principle in pulse rate investigations. This is termed the principle of comparative work study. The work performance was illustrated by a system scheme (Fig. 1). The scheme comprised the following main groups of elements: worker’s inclination for work, working capacity, reflexes and instincts, decision process, environmental factors, working methods and habits, work performance, output, earnings, and effects on the worker. The model was made up parallclly from abstract and concrete concepts, the aim being to make it suitable for the set of concepts of the theory of work study and the level of theory formulation. The model included the feedback from the effects on the worker-sample element group to the worker’s qualities. The literature on forest work studies in which some correlations introduced in the model were investigated is reviewed in Chapter 23. Owing to the great number of output studies they were treated as an example. The greatest part of the research activity has been analysis of the relations between environmental factors — and of them primarily the work difficulty factors — and the work output. The previously outlined system formula is examined in Chapter 24 as a cybernetic, probabilistic system in which the elements as such were conceived to embrace complex linkages and to be of the black-box type. The information transfer of these sample elements was illustrated by only one channel and information was consequently analysed merely as a symbolical expression of space and event. The decision process and the effects of reflexes and instincts were examined as the self-regulatory mechanism of the model. Feedbacks were established both within the worker and between the worker and environment. Principles influencing the formulation of the theory' of work science were postulated on the basis of the general properties of the system, such as threshold values, correlations, the principles of isomorphism and homomorphism: — If a correlation proves to be significant it is relevant at least in the population represented by the material and possibly also in other populations. — On the other hand, if no significant correlation is established between some independent variables there may nevertheless be a significant correlation in some other population or after some threshold values. — Il is useful for development of the theory' to explain the trend of the correlations and the internal conformities to law and mechanism of the elements. — It is assumed hypothetically that the constancy of the relative per-worker working time and strain value is influenced by the difference between the worker’s capabilities that the working methods and working conditions require and by his attitude to the working methods under comparison and his experience. — model taken from nature through simplifications is the more servicable the more deterministic it is. — Empirical work study generally' observes coded messages by indirect means and it is therefore seldom possible to demonstrate direct physiological causal relationships; what results is explanations of the ”either-or” or ”both-and” type. The system description of the work was developed in Chapter 25 by hypothetical insertion in the model of elements formed by the set of concepts of work study principles (Fig. 2). The concepts are: speed of work, physical strain, ratio between physical strain and maximal performance, total strain during the working day, psychic strain, relative consumption of time, average consumption of time, deviation of consumption of time, average strain, deviation of strain, relative strain, and attitudes to work. The quantitative and abstract levels of the concepts of the model were studied using the M-67-meta theory. Fig. 3 shows the concept hierarchies and the measuring features of the concepts. In processing the measuring features for formulation of the theory in the empirical part, concepts of the same quantitativencss arc used which are sub-concepts of the high real theoretical concepts: the worker’s capacity' and inclination for work, effects on the worker, performance, output and environmental factors. Fig. 4 shows the processes as a being model: performance — output and performance — effects on the worker, the worker’s resources (capacity for work) and feelings (inclination for work) and working conditions (environment) which influence the interrelations of these processes. The Jiving organism state of equilibrium. It logical theories that if a was found to be a system which seeks to preserve a was assumed from reference to physiological and psychofactor causes a greater deviation in the equilibrium of the organism than the conditions of other factors, that factor dominates the behaviour of the organism. This theory was applied in the empirical part to explain the phenomena established. In the empirical part the effect was examined of different factors on the consumption of working time, the physical strain on the worker, and the application of certain work study principles in the nursery to the cutting of roJlseedlings, the lifting of pine seedlings and the logging of pulpwood in grapple piles alongside the strip road (working method 2) and a 4-m wide zone for which the bunch size required was reduced (working method 1). The material and the measurements made are described in Chapter 32. The most important results were as follows. Owing to the paucity of degrees of freedom which interfered with testing they were distributed into statistically significant correlations and hypothetical correlations: — Consumption of working time was explained significantly in regression analysis by so-called work difficulty factors, working method, moving speed which illustrates the speed of the work, the time of the working day, the ordinal number of the working day and some independent variables that portray the worker.
The ecology of large herbivores in the Miombo woodlands of South East Tanzania
(The University of of Nairobi, 1979) Rodgers, William Alan
The studies described in this thesis arose from an ecological survey of part of the eastern side of the Selous Game Reserve in south east Tanzania from 1967 to 1975* The intensive study area contained two major, ecologically distinct, habitats, an area of tall grass miombo woodlahd and a smaller area of short grass scattered tree grassland. Several species of large grazing ungulate utilised thefce habitats, namely: buffalo, hartebeest, impala, sable, warthog, wildebeest and zebra* Seasonal changes in the environment such as the six month drought and widespread annual fires affect the pattern of habitat utilisation exhibited by each species. This thesis examines such utilisation and shows that each species has developed its own ecological and feeding strategies in order to maximise nutrient inputs and reproductive success in what is seasonally a harsh environment In many ways the miombo (Brachystegia) woodlands remain the least studied of the East African habitats This lack of data on the miombo in general and the Selous Game Reserve in particular means much of the thesis is taken up by descriptions of the physical and biotic environment of the study area. Following an introductory chapter the thesis is divided into three parts. Part one, with three chapters, describes the physical environment: geology, soil, climate, water and prehistory; the vegetation: community description, distribution and species composition, floristics and vegetation dynamics; and range factors of productivity and forage nutrient content Part two contains chapters on animal numbers, distribution patterns, feeding and nutrition and a chapter examining growth and reproduction as indices of population performance Part three concludes the thesis with a chapter reviewing the miombo woodlands and the Selous as a wildlife habitat and a final chapter discussing management policy for the Selous Game Reserve. The study area is low lying (100 - 700m asl) with a single rainy season from late November to early May (average 760mm p.a.) Despite a long hot dry season, surface water is relatively plentiful Habitat distribution is primarily controlled by geology and soil type with major modifications by fires and past human activity. The upland Karoo and post karoo sandstones give rise to infertile acidic red sandy soils which carry a climax-thicket formation These have been degraded into woodland by fire and settlement activity Lower down the drainage slope the flat Pleistocene river terrace of grits and sands has produced a hard alkaline sodic soil carrying short grass scattered tree grassland The drainage sump of recent alluvial clay carries tall floodplain grasses The vegetation is diverse, collections to date totalling over 1200 vascular plants including 150 grass species. The woodland vegetation shows strong affinities to the Zambezian flora,and the thicket, riverine and alkaline communities show affinities to the East African coastal flora o The thesis contains species lists and a vegetation community map. Fire has opened up the thickets producing tall grass woodlands of various types. Grasses, mainly Andropogonae, are coarse tussock perennials with very low nutritive values when dry* No burning allows the spread of woody and climbing species which engulf the grass layer and rapidly reduce grazing values* Late dry season fires reduce woody elements and plant diversities and leave coarse grass growth thoughout the dry season* Cooler early dry season fires maintain mixed woodland communities and a mixture of grass species and, where water tables allow, rapidly produce a flush of nutritious regenerating grass growth* Crude protein content of such growth can reach 20% although standing crop is low* The alkaline soils carry a short grass sward of mixed annual perennial species of high nutritive values in the rains* There is no flush after burning and dry season grazing values are low* Chapter 5 discusses techniques of animal census in detail* A vehicular ground sample census using fixed systematically placed transects was used for common ungulates* Rainy season densities on the short grass habitats are as follows: Impala 28*7/km2, wildebeest 27,2/km2, zebra l6*2/km^ and warthog 9*4/km2# Wildebeest and impala densities have remained unchanged for six years, zebra and warthog densities have increased significantly* Less detailed data are given for other species* Distribution data have been collected at several different scales from Tanzania wide, to the Selous, to the study area, to the different facets of a miombo valley-ridge catenary system* It is ‘shewn that 'salile *nd'‘L±ch’fcnrteins .'S* : ns hartebeest are restricted to tall grass woodland habitats, wildebeest and impala must have access to short grass areas in the rains and that buffalo, zebra and warthog, are more habitat tolerant but achieve higher densities on short grass habitats . Within the study area virtually all impala, warthog, wildebeest and zebra concentrate on the short grass areas in the rains, moving into the woodlands following the onset of burning Within the woodland habitat wildebeest and impala concentrate on the green flush of the valleys and avoid the unburnt areas and ridge tops. Sable and hartebeest are distributed throughout all categories and warthog and zebra are intermediate showing some selection of valley and green areas The onset of the November rains signals a return to the short grasslands Studies of feeding behaviour showed buffalo, hartebeest and wildebeest to be total grazers whilst sable and impala took significant proportions of browse in the dry season and warthog diet changed to perennial monocot roots and rhizomes. Feeding studies concentrated on wildebeest and impala and much data was obtained from post morterm analysis. By assuming that extrapolation of data from other large ungulate studies was unlikely to cause large relative errors it was possible to make estimates of protein and energy intakes and of theoretical nutrient needs for these two species. the rainy season both species had inputs greater than During theoretical requirements for maintenance, i e i positive nutritional balance. they were in As the dry season progressed T both male and female wildebeest which remained on the dry short grass habit entered a period of negative nutritional balance• However wildebeest moving to fresh flush in the woodlands were shown (albeit on less evidence) to maintain a positive balance. Impala at the onset of the dry season changed their diet to nutrient rich browse components and so maintained a positive nutritional balance. These two ! strategies of habitat change and dietary change have resulted in peak nutritional inputs at different times of year. Impala have peak inputs in September and wildebeest in i December periods. Onset of parturition coincides with these peak The nutritional load of gestation is minimal compared to that of lactation. Calving season therefore allows lactation and wearing of calves at the nutritional optimum time of year. Other species show different strategies, which allow a separation of niche space reducing competition for food resources Chapter eight shows that individual growth rate, body condition and fecundity rates are as high or higher than other populations in Africa., and that populations here are well adapted to the ecological conditions of this part of the Selous Game Reserve. This chapter discusses why the wildebeest population is stationary when nutrition is adequate, condition is good and fecundity is high. Predation by lion is put forward as a major limiting factor* The concluding chapters look at the miombo woodlands throughout Africa as wildlife reserves and suggest that only when tall grass woodlands are adjacent to other habitats such as short grassland or floodplains do animal densities reach levels high enough to warrant major conservation inputs* The importance of fire in providing dry season graze is stressed and fire management polices for the Selous are discussed* Past, present and future human impacts on the wilderness values of the Selous are examined and a plea is made for definite land use policy statements for south east Tanzania and the reserve*
Plant species in the Kilimanjaro agroforestry system
(Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk, 1984) O'kting'ati, A; Maghembe, J. A; Fernandes, E. C. M; Weaver, G. H
An inventory of plant species was conducted on farms, farm boundaries and homesteads in the Kilimanjaro agroforestry system. The survey covered 30 farms in 6 villages in Hal District on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Over 100 plant species spread over 40 families were identified and their uses obtained through inter- views with farmers. The species identified include 53 tree species, 29 food crop species, 21 non-woody plants of economic value and 8 weed species. The food crops, trees and other economically useful plants are carefully chosen by the local farmers and intimately intercropped on the same unit of land. In most cases, the plants had two or more uses of which food, fuelwood, medicine, poles, timber and fodder were the most important.
Genotype and soil fertility interaction in the growth of black spruce progeny from a central New Brunswick population
(Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 1984) Maliondo, S. M.; Krause, H. H.
Seedlings representing 10 half-sib families from a black spruce (Piceamariana (Mill.) B.S.P.) stand in central New Brunswick were raised in a greenhouse on three different soils, each with two levels of fertility. Seedling growth varied significantly with soil, fertility, and half-sib family. After 7 months mean dry weights, for example, ranged from 0.292 to 0.755 g with soil, 0.174 to 0.936 g with level of fertility, and 0.370 to 0.657 g with family. With soil and fertility considered fixed variables, the family and family–fertility interaction accounted for approximately 3 and 20% of the phenotypic variation in mean seedling dry weight, respectively. Similar variance components were observed for shoot and root weights, and root collar diameter. Based on the family – soil fertility interaction, the population was divided into groups of (i) broadly adapted families showing average performance through the full range of fertility environments, (ii) strong responders, i.e., families performing below average at low fertility, but showing a large fertilization response, and (iii) weak or nonresponders, i.e., families performing poorly in all fertility environments.
Basic density and tracheid length in juvenile and mature wood in pinus patula from southern Tanzania
(Sokoine Univesrity of Agriculture, 1984) Ringo,Winnyston n-jilekiro
Variations in basic density and tracheid length were investigated on wood samples from 27 year old Pinus patula trees grown in Sao Hill, Southern Tanzania. The main objectives of the study were: - to verify variations between and within trees to determine juvenile period and juvenile wood proportion in the stems - to elucidate variations between and within juvenile and mature wood - to relate juvenile wood basic density and tracheid length with those in mature wood. Fifteen sample trees were randomly selected in two similar compartments in Msiwazi sub-management block. 2.5 cm thick disks were extracted from each sample tree at 1.3 m, 4 m, 8 m and 12 m heights. Based on results from a preliminary investigation, data for the following variables were obtained for each second ring from pith to bark following one cardinal direction in each: - ring distance from pith - ring width - latewood band width - ring basic density - earlywood and latewood basic densities - earlywood and latewood tracheid lengths Basic density was computed from oven dry weight and green volume. Tracheid length was measured by the projection technique. Earlywood and latewood tracheid lengths were obtained separately as the mean length of 30 unbroken tracheids. The average of the early wood and latewood tracheid lengths constituted the ring tracheid length.
Growth and ectomycorrhizal development of pinus caribaea seedlings inoculated with basidiospores of scleroderma dictyosporum in fertilized nursery soil in Tanzania
(Elsevier, 1984-01) Maghembe, J. A; Redhead, J. F
Seeds of Pinus caribaea were sown in plastic pots containing nursery soil with or without a basidiospore inoculum of Scleroderma dictyosporum. After seedling establishment, five fertilizer treatments involving 0, 250, 500, 750 and 1000 g NPK per m3 of nursery soil were administered. The ratio of N:P:K in NPK was 3:3:1.Basidiospores of S. dictyosporum were an effective inoculum for P. caribaea seedlings. Inoculated seedlings showed superior growth in height, root collar area, length of stem with needles and dry matter production. Inoculation also increased the concentration of P in the plant tissues but had no effect on other nutrients studied.Fertilizer response was evident, but there were generally no benefits of using fertilizer levels above 250 g NPK per m3 soil. In fact, mycorrhizal development was progressively reduced with each increase in the level of NPK fertilizer. Tissue Mg concentrations were also deficient, a reflection of nutrient uptake imbalance due to high concentrations of ammonium sulphate and potassium chloride in the soil. Basidiospores of S. dictyosporum can therefore be used for routine inoculation of P. caribaea seedlings in nursery soils at low levels of NPK. Coincidentally such a reduction in the amount of NPK applied in nursery soil will have both biological as well as economic benefits
Forest road planting and control by mathematical programming and time study analysis
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1985) Abeli, W S
Planning and construction of forest roads have until very recently been geared towards establishment and tending of plantation forests. Now that most of the plantations are nearing maturity, it is essential to plan and construct proper roads for harvesting purposes. Hi is study was designed to develop a comprehensive methodology that can be used by forest managers in the planning and control of forest roads. Specifically, the objectives of the study were: - To evaluate the application of mathematical programming methods to the design of safe and minimum-cost forest roads - To test the feasibility of improving and controlling forest road construction by mathematical programming - To develop a comprehensive methodology for measuring and estimating production rates and costs associated with forest road construction. To be able to plan, execute and control work operations for this study, a representative 1.3 km access road was planned and constructed at the Training Forest of the Sokoine University of Agriculture between February 1981 and May 1984. A number of mathematical models and time study methods were tested and incorporated in this study in order to develop a comprehensive methodology aimed at improving plan ning, control and cost estimation procedures. Based on the results of this study, the following observatxons and conclusions are made;Planning and construction of forest roads have until very recently been geared towards establishment and tending of plantation forests. Now that most of the plantations are nearing maturity, it is essential to plan and construct proper roads for harvesting purposes. Hi is study was designed to develop a comprehensive methodology that can be used by forest managers in the planning and control of forest roads. Specifically, the objectives of the study were: - To evaluate the application of mathematical programming methods to the design of safe and minimum-cost forest roads - To test the feasibility of improving and controlling forest road construction by mathematical programming - To develop a comprehensive methodology for measuring and estimating production rates and costs associated with forest road construction. To be able to plan, execute and control work operations for this study, a representative 1.3 km access road was planned and constructed at the Training Forest of the Sokoine University of Agriculture between February 1981 and May 1984. A number of mathematical models and time study methods were tested and incorporated in this study in order to develop a comprehensive methodology aimed at improving plan ning, control and cost estimation procedures. Based on the results of this study, the following observatxons and conclusions are made;Planning and construction of forest roads have until very recently been geared towards establishment and tending of plantation forests. Now that most of the plantations are nearing maturity, it is essential to plan and construct proper roads for harvesting purposes. Hi is study was designed to develop a comprehensive methodology that can be used by forest managers in the planning and control of forest roads. Specifically, the objectives of the study were: - To evaluate the application of mathematical programming methods to the design of safe and minimum-cost forest roads - To test the feasibility of improving and controlling forest road construction by mathematical programming - To develop a comprehensive methodology for measuring and estimating production rates and costs associated with forest road construction. To be able to plan, execute and control work operations for this study, a representative 1.3 km access road was planned and constructed at the Training Forest of the Sokoine University of Agriculture between February 1981 and May 1984. A number of mathematical models and time study methods were tested and incorporated in this study in order to develop a comprehensive methodology aimed at improving plan ning, control and cost estimation procedures. Based on the results of this study, the following observatxons and conclusions are made;(a) With some modifications (in order to fit them to local conditions), the standard engineering procedures used for road design, layout and culvert size determination proved to be fully satisfactory for use in Tanzania. (b) Detailed time and work analyses conducted during the study resulted in the establishment of production rates and costs of forest road construction in Tanzania. (c) Microcomputer-based linear programming and a transportation tableau method were shown to be equivalent in determining optimal allocation of earthwork during forest road planning. Because it can be done by hand without recourse to a micro computer, however the transportation tableau method is the one likely to be favoured and adopted by most forest projects in Tanzania. (d) Before the actual road construction starts, the distance between net cut and net fill areas can be used as a surrogate for earthwork cost to determine the optimal road design. The study found that the design alternative selected on the basis of minimum earth moving distance was also the one that mini mized earthwork cost. (e) A distance of 30 m between instrument stations along the road appears to provide better accuracy for road layout and design than using either intervals of 60 m or utilizing "terrain breaks" to define instrument stations. In this study, both of these latter interval lengths provided data (a) With some modifications (in order to fit them to local conditions), the standard engineering procedures used for road design, layout and culvert size determination proved to be fully satisfactory for use in Tanzania. (b) Detailed time and work analyses conducted during the study resulted in the establishment of production rates and costs of forest road construction in Tanzania. (c) Microcomputer-based linear programming and a transportation tableau method were shown to be equivalent in determining optimal allocation of earthwork during forest road planning. Because it can be done by hand without recourse to a micro computer, however the transportation tableau method is the one likely to be favoured and adopted by most forest projects in Tanzania. (d) Before the actual road construction starts, the distance between net cut and net fill areas can be used as a surrogate for earthwork cost to determine the optimal road design. The study found that the design alternative selected on the basis of minimum earth moving distance was also the one that mini mized earthwork cost. (e) A distance of 30 m between instrument stations along the road appears to provide better accuracy for road layout and design than using either intervals of 60 m or utilizing "terrain breaks" to define instrument stations. In this study, both of these latter interval lengths provided data which tended to u. i erestimate actual road construction cost by about 30 Z. (f) The influence of road grade and alignment on log-truck haul ing speed can satisfactorily be determined through the prin ciples of engineering mechanics. For instance, when deter mining the hauling speed over a given road with a good number of sharp curves, time to decelerate into and accelerate out of the curve, the designed curve speed and the maximum safe speed have to be considered. (g) Of three road grade alternatives analysed in this study (6 Z, 8 Z and 10 Z), the 8 Z maximum grade recommended by the Forest Division was found to be the grade that minimized the total of earthwork and hauling costs. (h) The use of the critical path method during culvert installa tion resulted in the reduction of total installation time by about 28 Z. (i) Road construction is an expensive undertaking, but costs can be reduced to about 1/3 to 1/2 of those estimated by road contractors if proper applied. planning and control procedures are The construction cost of this research road was found to be shs 220 587/km, with earthwork and gravelling operations taking 33 Z and 30 Z of the total construction costs respectively, while road alignment/clearing and culvert installation took 24 Z and 13 Z respectively.In addition to these conclusions, the methodological procedures described in detail in this thesis provide a foundation on which forest managers can base decisions related to the planning and cons truction of forest roads.
Effect of hot water and chemical treatments on the germination of Albizia schimperana seed
(Elsevier Science Publishers B.V, 1986-03) Msanga, H. P; Maghembe, J. A
The effect of water temperature at soaking and various chemical applications following soaking on the germination of Albizia schimperana seed was studied. The aim was to increase the overall germination percentage and to hasten the rate at which germination occurs. The water soaking treatments included: (1) no soaking; (2) soaking at 50°C; (3) soaking at 75°C; and (4) soaking at 99°C. The chemical treatments included; (1) no chemical applied; (2) immersion in KNO3; (3) immersion in H2O2; and (4) combined in a factorial arrangement replicated 4 times. Germination percentages were generally low, ranging from 10.0 to 33.5% at 36 days after sowing. The highest germination percentage (33.5%) was attained by seeds which were soaked in water at 75°C followed by immersion in hydrogen peroxide. Seeds which were soaked in water at this temperature but not treated with chemicals showed a germination of 32.0%. It is preliminary recommended that seeds of A. schimperana be immersed in water at the initial temperature of 75°C and allowed to soak until the water cools to room temperature.
Intercropping, weeding and spacing effects on growth and nutrient content in Leucaena leucocephala at Morogoro, Tanzania
(Elsevier, 1986-03) Maghembe, J. A; Kaoneka, A. R. S; Lulandala, L. L. L
The study was conducted to evaluate the suitability of Leucaena leucocephala for fuelwood and pole production using agroforestry in a semiarid environment. The trial site, planted in February 1980 at Mafiga, Morogoro, was a split plot design with four main plots: (1) Leucaena intercropped with maize; (2) Leucaena intercropped with beans; (3) Leucaena monoculture and clean weeded; and (4) Leucaena monoculture and spot weeded. Each main plot included three tree-spacing sub- plots, 3 X 3 m, 4 X 4 m and 5 × 5 m, and replicated four times. Each of the subplots comprised at least 25 trees. Twenty-four trees representing all the diameter classes in the trial were harvested in March 1984 and used to determine mean plot height, volume and biomass by regression analysis. Nutrient content was determined using routine laboratory methods. Mean subplot height varied from 7.0 to 7.8 m, whereas diameter at the stem base varied from 10.2 to 14.9 cm. The volume varied from 10.3 to 32.8 m 3 ha -~ and total biomass values from 13.5 to 31.1 metric t ha -1. Trees under spot weeding showed the poorest growth, whereas those under clean weeding showed the best. Spacing influenced both diameter and height growth, with the widest spacing producing the largest trees. Because of a higher tree population, however, the lowest spacing showed the highest volume and biomass production. Intercropping with maize and beans showed significantly higher volume and biomass production as compared to spot weeding. However, there was no significant difference between trees under clean weeded treatments and those under intercropping. Nutrient concentra- tions were high and comparable to other pasture legumes. The total nutrient accumulation in the aerial biomass in kg ha- 1 was 201, 25.1,267, 106, 34 and 18 for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium, respectively.
Bark-stripping and food habits of blue monkeys in a forest plantation in mount Meru, Tanzania
(UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO, 1989-04) Maganga, S. L. S
Bark-stripping of Cupressus lusitanica (cypress) and Pinus patula (pine) by blue monkeys (Cercopethicus mitis kibonotensis) in Meru Forest Plantations has been a problem since they were established in the early 1950s. This study was conducted in 1987 in the Sokoine University of Agriculture determine the magnitude of bark-stripping in relation to the food habits of blue monkeys. assessed in compartments with trees 3 to 14 years old, and the pattern of debarking was monitored throughout the year. On the average, 79.5 % cypress and 88.7% pine trees were debarked. Blue monkeys preferred dominant cypress trees to intermediate trees. In contrast, intermediate pine trees were more damaged than dominant trees. In both species, suppressed trees were least damaged. In all types of trees, the most severe bark damage occurred at the middle and top of the tree trunks. Twisted bole was the most common defect developed by damaged trees; 34% cypress and 38% pine trees were twisted at the middle and top sections. Bark-stripping was low in the rain season and increased in the dry season peaking at 22% of trees damaged in June and July. ■ The food habits data were collected from the indigenous forest at two sites within the plantation. A total of 38 plant species were eaten by blue monkeys. Fruits were the Training Forest, a portion of the Meru Forest Plantations, to The extent, intensity and effects of bark damage were Bark-stripping of Cupressus lusitanica (cypress) and iv most frequently consumed food item and averaged 76% of the monthly feeding records. Leaves were the next important food item but they were inversely related to the feeding on fruits. The other food items (flowers, shoots, petioles and bark) were similarly inversely related to the feeding on fruits. Bark stripping was negatively correlated to the feeding on fruits, and thus increased when the feeding on fruits declined. Fruits of Ficus thonningii were the prime item in the diet of blue monkeys contributing 50 to 60% of the monthly feeding records. The amount of fruit on these trees in the area was also inversely related to extent of bark damage in the plantation. The water and carbohydrate in the bark of cypress and pine trees was determined to examine if they influenced the bark-stripping. These were poorly correlated to the monthly debarking of both tree species.
Bark-stripping and food habits of blue monkeys in a forest plantation on mount Meru, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1989-04) Maganga, Samwel L.S.
Bark-stripping of Cupressus lusitanica (cypress) and Pinus patula (pine) by blue monkeys (Cercopethicus mitis kibonotensis) in Meru Forest Plantations has been a problem since they were established in the early 1950s. This study was conducted in 1987 in the Sokoine University of Agriculture Training Forest, a portion of the Meru Forest Plantations, to determine the magnitude of bark-stripping in relation to the food habits of blue monkeys. The extent, intensity and effects of bark damage were assessed in compartments with trees 3 to 14 years old, and the pattern of debarking was monitored throughout the year. On the average, 79.5 % cypress and 88.7% pine trees were debarked. Blue monkeys preferred dominant cypress trees to intermediate trees. In contrast, intermediate pine trees were more damaged than dominant trees. trees were least damaged. In both species, suppressed In all types of trees, the most severe bark damage occurred at the middle and top of the tree trunks. Twisted bole was the most common defect developed by damaged trees; 34% cypress and 38% pine trees were twisted at the middle and top sections. Bark-stripping was low in the rain season and increased in the dry season peaking at 22% of trees damaged in June and July. • The food habits data were collected from the indigenous forest at two sites within the plantation. plant species were eaten by blue monkeys. A total of 38 Fruits were theiv most frequently consumed food item and averaged 76% of the monthly feeding records. Leaves were the next important food item but they were inversely related to the feeding on fruits. The other food items (flowers, shoots, petioles and bark) were similarly inversely related to the feeding on fruits. Bark stripping was negatively correlated to the feeding on fruits, and thus increased when the feeding on fruits declined. Fruits of Ficus thonninqii were the prime item in the diet of blue monkeys contributing 50 to 60% of the monthly feeding records. The amount of fruit on these trees in the area was also inversely related to extent of bark damage in the plantation. The water and carbohydrate in the bark of cypress and pine trees was determined to examine if they influenced the bark-stripping. These were poorly correlated to the monthly debarking of both tree species.
Comparing Productivity and Costs of Three Subgrading Machines
(1993) Abeli, W.S.
Production rates and costs of three forest road construction machines (Ford County 1164 tractor, D4D and D6D Caterpillar bulldozers) were analysed and compared. Results showed that differences in production rates were attributed mainly by the type and the size of the machine, driver's working experience and the nature of the terrain side slope. Compared to other subgrade productivity studies, machine production rates found in this study were considered to be reasonably high. The mean production rates for the D6D, D4D and the County tractor were 129.0 m3/h, 41.0 mVh and 28.1 mVh respectively. High productive time, easily workable soils and few obstacles encountered during earthworks operation were the major factors which contributed to high machine production rates. Cost analysis showed that the higher the machine production rate the lower the subgrading cost and vice versa. The mean production costs for the D6D, D4D and the County were estimated to be US$ 0.49/m3, US$0.79/m3 and US$0.76 /m3 respectively. The estimated machine production costs were more or less the same as those estimated elsewhere. Although low machine production cost is usually the criterion used in choosing the machine to be used for road construction works, this paper recommends that other factors be considered.
Optimal road spacing for manual skidding sulkies
(Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 1993-09) Abeli, W. S.; Magomu, G. M.
An optimal road spacing is the one which minimizes the overall sum of skidding costs, road construction and road maintenance costs. As road spacing increases, skidding cost increases while road construction and maintenance cost decreases. Each skidding means has its own optimal skidding distance and road spacing. This study analyses skidding productions and optimal road spacing for hand sulkies skidding logs in one of the forest plantations in Tanzania. Results from this study indicate that when undertaking thinning operations especially in flat to gentle sloping terrains, sulky skidding could be considered as a better alternative to tractor and manual skidding methods. Besides being simple and cheap, the system causes minimum stand and soil damages, creates employment opportunities for the rural people and does not demand foreign capital .The average skidding distance in this study was measured to be 71 m while average skidding production was estimated to be 1.21 m3/man-hour. An optimal road spacing which minimizes the overall total costs in this forest was found to be 137 m.
Effect of spacing on performance of teak at Longuza, Tanga, Tanzania
(Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 1994) Sibomana, G.; Makonda, F. B. S.; Malimbwi, R. E; Chamshama, S. A. O.; Iddi, S.
The performance of teak ( Tectona grandis ) planted at four square spacings ( 1 .5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 m) at Longuza, Tanga, in Tanzania was assessed. The variables studied were diameter at breast height (dbh) , total height and height to the first live branch, survival, number of branches, basal area and volume production at ages 1, 3, 7 and 9 y, and basic density and some strength properties at the age of 1 4 y. Results showed that dbh, number of branches, total height, basal area, basic density and some strength properties were significantly affected by spacing (p = 0.05). The diameter at breast height and number of branches increased with increasing spacing, while basal area decreased. All other variables were not significantly affected by spacing. A spacing of 3.0 m resulted in large diameter trees and later thinnings, with less total volume per hectare. The current spacing of 2 m resulted in higher volume per hectare of small sized trees which could be improved by thinning. It is recommended to continue with this spacing and the current thinning schedule until information on the economic implications of alternative regimes is available.
Indigenous management systems as a basis for community forestry in Tanzania: A case study of Dodoma urban and Lushoto disticts
(Wageningen, 1994) Kajembe, George C.
This report presents an analysis of the nature of both indigenous and professionally sponsored community forest management systems in two districts in Tanzania. It describes various types of internally generated forest and tree management systems. It demonstrates that a gap exists between indigenous and externally sponsored management systems. In the externally sponsored projects, the concept of participation implies that rural people should participate in professionals' projects, rather than that professionals should participate in the livelihood projects of rural people. Interventions along these lines generate confrontations, as well as degrees of collaboration and participation between local farmers and projects. The study focusses on three key actor categories to be considered in community forestry projects, i.e. farmers, village extension workers and supervisors. The relations between these actor categories constitute the "middle ground" of community forestry development. This concept refers to the totality of social processes and fields within which the actors attempt to establish common ground for their negotiations over resources and development alternatives. The study seeks to understand how strategic actions and interactions of different actor categories shape the outcome of community forestry projects, as well as how to bridge the gap between internally generated activities and externally sponsored interventions.
The extension and communication programme for the east Usambara catchment forest project
(Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania Forestry and Beekeeping Division, 1994) Kajembe, G. C.; Mwaseba, D.
The extension and communication programme consultancy was commissioned by the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project (EUCFP). The terms of reference have an overall objective of developing a means of communication which can help the project present its objectives and ideas to the local people and enlist their cooperation as a way of sustaining the project activities. Specific objectives of the study includes: Identifying felt needs of the farmers; proposing extension packages which can meet the felt needs of the people so as to solicit their cooperation in safeguarding the forest reserves; identifying appropriate extension methods which can be used to reach these people; and to propose a training programme which can promote genuine participation of both extension agents and the general public.
Two-decade variations in hydrology of two river basins in the Usambaras of north-eastern Tanzania
(Duke University, 1994) Munishi, Pantalco K. T.
Quantifying local, regional, and global climatic and hydrologic changes is relatively difficult due to high temporal and spatial variability, and to the length of time it takes for these changes to be monitored and detected. The study of precipitation and river flow patterns of two watersheds, Sigi and Soni Rivers, that drain the east and west Usambaras in northeastern Tanzania over a two decades period 1965 to 1989, show that there were varying patterns of precipitation and river flow on the Usambaras over the period. Though a non-significant trend, precipitation increased by 2.7% in the east Usambaras while it decreased by 7.7% in the west Usambaras during the period 1965-1990. The mean annual discharge increased by 2.6% in the east and 44% in the west Usambaras. During approximately two decades, discharge per unit of precipitation did not change significantly in the east Usambaras whereas it appeared to increase at a rate of 0.02 m3 s“lyr"l in the west Usambaras (P = 0.06). This is about 0.4 m3 s-1 yr-1 (1.2 cm ha-1 yr-1) more water flowing into the river today compared to 1965. There has been an increase in the proportion of precipitation reaching the rivers especially in the west Usambaras, which seems to have started about in the mid-1960’s. Such watershed response to rainfall may be attributed to climatic and land use factors. In the Usambaras, changes in hydrologic response coincide with high rates of deforestation and changes in land use patterns. It is recommended that the remaining catchment areas on the Usambaras, and vegetation filter strips along river/stream banks should be protected. Appropriate reforestation work in degraded lands including agroforestry in farmlands should form the framework of conservation measures.
Estimation of biomass and volume in Miombo Woodland at Kitulangalo Forest Reserve, Tanzania
(Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 1994-12) Malimbwi, R. E.; Solberg, B.; Luoga, E.
Seventeen sample trees of different miombo species distributed in 1 0 sample plots were excavated and measured for volume and green weight. Samples from the roots and stems were taken and treated in the laboratory for biomass determination of the sample trees.Using these data biomass equations for roots and stems as functions of diameter at breast height (DBH) and total height were developed. Stem volume equations were also developed. These equations were used to estimate biomass and volume per hectare for different tree parts. Twenty per cent of the biomass in miombo woodlands was found to be in the roots and 80% was in the aerial parts. Fifty-one per cent was volume of stems > 15 cm diameter and forty-nine per cent was volume of stem < 15 cm diameter.
Tropical rainforest deforestation, biodiversity benefits and sustainable landuse: analysis of economic and ecological aspects related to the Nguru mountains, Tanzania.
(Agricultural University of Norway, 1995) Monela, Gerald C.
The purpose of this report is to identify the main landuse and landuse problems with reference to agriculture and forestry in the Nguru mountains, and the main factors causing these problems, and analyze ways to reduce them in order to prevent forest degradation and deforestation. Based on data collected in villages in the Nguru mountains using interviews, field observations, and secondary sources it seems that ecological and socio-economic factors have played an important role in shaping the existing landuse practices, landuse problems and factors causing landuse problems in the Nguru mountains. The major landuses are agriculture and forestry. The agriculture is dependent on rainfall, growing mainly subsistence food crops using traditional farming practices. Forestry is for water conservation but also supplies local communities with both timber and nontimber forest products. Relative to other landuses such as settlements and grazing, agriculture and forestry have contributed most to the prevailing landuse conflicts in the Nguru mountains. The main landuse problems in the Nguru mountains are: deforestation pressure through encroachment for agriculture and settlements, forest degradation through excessive forest product exploitation, frequent and uncontrolled bush fires, land degradation and soil erosion, declining crop harvests, squatters inside the Forest Reserve, farming in the buffer zone around the rainforest and non-adherence to forest control measures. The impact of these landuse problems on the rainforest have been more severe on lowland rainforests where high rates of rainforest conversion to agriculture and other landuses were observed. These landuse problems are a consequence of many interrelated factors acting as local agents or beyond local boundaries. These factors are caused by complex processes resulting from human social dynamics. From survey results in the area these factors range from social, economic, cultural and political forces which are related to each other in multilineal causal chains. The main ones are: growing population, land scarcity, search for market goods, increased domestic demand for food and forest products, poverty, lack of knowledge, lack of an effective extension service, market failures such as breakdown of traditional management systems due to commercialization of demand for resources, government failures such as inefficient government policies, risks and uncertainty in farming (pests, diseases and vagaries of climate) insecure land rights under customary land tenure system, traditional or cultural barriers, conflicting objectives between land users, failure to control protected areas such as Forest Reserves and decline in forest product supply and lack of income from outside agriculture and forestry. It seems the government has not been able to control landuse problems through policy measures or coercion. Also the market has not been able to do so, due to its failure to provide negative feedback loops to check landuse problems. Widespread market and government failures largely account for this situation since, they provide incentive for poor landuse practices. Rural poverty and efforts to adapt to economic hardships at the local level have a significant influence on landuse problems. Vaguely defined, unequitable and uncertain land tenure conditions, lack of knowledge and traditional barriers have added a complicating dimension to landuse problems. The poor local people, the direct agents of degradation and deforestation pressure, have been made to rely on unreliable access to credit markets due to the absence of guarantees (collateral), caused by lack or uncertainty of tenure. The effect has been to increase landuse problems. Since the welfare and survival of the local people in the Nguru mountains, are inextricably linked with agriculture and the environment, they must improve current landuse practices, in order to come to terms with the reality of resource limitation and carrying capacity of their ecosystem. Wise management of land and forest resources requires appropriate landuse practices, to alleviate landuse problems in order to improve the standard of living and preserve the biological systems, especially the tropical rainforest upon which they depend. The strategy recommended requires landuse planning for efficient use of resources and integrated planning to harmonize conflict between land uses. Other measures include family planning to control population growth, education to enhance change of attitude on resource use, by overcoming communication breakdown between resources users and protectors through direct dialogue and community involvement, giving some specific rights to property in reserved forests, and benefits to villagers to meet their needs while protecting the resources, improving traditional landuse systems and traditional knowledge, incorporating agroforestry in farming systems, removal of institutional barriers to wise landuse by government through appropriate policy changes, and improvement of rainforest management methods to enhance forest protection.

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