Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Epidemiology and control of bovine fasciolosis and schistosomosis in the Southern highlands of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture., 201) Makundi, Asanteli Eliangikundi
The main purpose of this study was to determine if anthelmintic treatment of early patent primary fasciolosis and schistosomosis would prevent development of acute disease and would improve productivity of calves which continue grazing high potential natural transmission areas, without causing unwanted side effects or interfering with the development of immunity. Aspects of transmission biology and host parasite relationship were also investigated. Field studies, including cattle and snails, were performed at Lulanzi dairy farm where the trematode infections were highly prevalent. In addition experimental Schistosoma bovis infections were carried out in confined calves. The results from snail studies showed that Bulinus natalensis was the most abundant freshwater snail, which was responsible for the transmission of Schistosoma bovis mainly towards the end ofthe rainy season. Results ofthe field study, where cattle were naturally exposed, showed that acquisition of trematode infections was gradual. It took five months for the peak egg excretion to be reached, followed by a gradual decline to a very low level. Both triclabendazole and praziquantel drugs were highly efficacious and reduced Fasciola and Schistosoma worms by 100% and 95.6% respectively; while for S. bovis faecal and tissue eggs the reduction was 98.9% and 79-96%, respectively. Treatment kept the faecal egg excretion of both parasites species at a very low level for more than seven months and did not affect the development of immunity. Deterioration of the body weights pathological lesions, mainly fibrosis of the liver, were observed in the treated experimentally infected animals than in the untreated ones. However, no clinical and haematological parameters were only seen during the dry season and it was more severe in the untreated compared to the treated, challenged calves. More severe iii signs were associated with such changes and there was a gradual resolution of the pathological lesions. In the experimental S. bovis infections it was shown that, along the small intestine, eggs were mainly deposited in the anterior part at week seven, in the central part at week 18 and evenly distributed at week 32 post infection. The key findings from the present study are that B. natalensis for the first time was proved to transmit S. bovis and that such an infection occurred in the snails that had an existing amphistome infection. The animal studies have demonstrated that natural Fasciola and Schistososma infections in cattle are mainly sub-clinical and their impact is seen mainly during the dry season when feed supply is limited. Although treatment of early infections transiently causes additional liver fibrosis, treatment prevents development of acute disease and does not interfere with the development of immunity. Furthermore, treatment prevents further deterioration of the health of the cattle during the dry period. In addition, the observed reduction in faecal egg excretion has an epidemiological impact of reducing the transmission of these infections. In general, the present findings raise the possibility of strategic use of anthelmintics for preventing the development of acute trematode disease in young ruminants, improving their productivity and reducing the transmission intensity in endemic areas
Factors associated with diseases and mortality of calves in Morogoro, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1997) Mellau, Lesakit Sipira Bernard
This study was aimed at elucidating the influence of management and other factors associated with diseases and mortality of calves managed under intensive, semi intensive and free range systems practised by stale farms, parastatal farms and small scale dairy producers in the region. Management factors include bucket feeding versus suckling of colostrum, administration of post colostra! feeds, housing and disease control schemes. Other factors were breeds of cattle and season of the year. A total of 368 calves were involved in the study over a period covering one rain season and one dry season. 138 calves were from Kingolwira Prisons farm (KPF), 127 from Mlali, 57 from Azam Estate, 22 from Magadu dairy Unit and 24 from SUA farm. All these farms are within a radius of 50 kilometers from Morogoro town and were selected on the basis of differing management systems, herd size and access to the farm by road. The study was conducted through questionnaires, clinical examination and laboratory analysis for hematological, parasitological and pathological parameters. Prevalence of diarrhoea was significantly high in bucket fed calves than suckeld calves “(Pc0.001). Bovine coronavirus, rotavirus and Escherichia coli K 99 antigens were detected in 61% of faecal samples collected, and mixed infection of 2 or all of these organisms was frequent. Helminthosis was observed in both weaned and unweaned calves but calves less than 1 month old were relatively less affected as compared to older calves "(P <0.001). Haemonchus spp, Trichostnmgylus spp, Strongyloides papillosus, Oesophagostonium spp and Cooperia oncophora were the most frequently isolated worms, where they accounted for 35.5%, 15.5%, 15.5%, 31.1% and 2.2% respectively. Toxocara vindorum infestation was detected in only 4 calves of less than 28 days at Mlali farm where water buffaloes graze with cattle. Other diseases were, pneumonia, cutaneous mycosis which subsided with increasing age, bovine parasitic otitis, cases of Beta hemolytic E. coll otitis and alopecia of unknown cause. Mortality rate among calves was 25%, 17.4%, 13.6%, 8.7% and 7.8% for SUA farm, KPF, Magadu dairy unit, Azam Estate and Mlali farms respectively. Weaned and unweaned calf mortality contributed equally to total calf mortality. Helminthosis was the cause of mortality in weaned calves, whereas, pneumonia and diarrhoea were the main causes of death in unweaned calves. Coccidiosis was not a serious disease in calves managed under semi intensive and free range systems as it was in intensively managed calves.
Trypanosome non-specific antibody responses during trypanosoma congolense infection of cattle
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1998) Buza, Joram Josephat
Trypanosome infections of cattle are characterized by concomitant increase in serum IgM, development of antibodies reacting with non-trypanosome antigens and an increase in the proportion of CD5+ B cells in peripheral blood and spleen. It is not known whether the three events are related. In mice and humans, CD5+ B cells have been shown to predominantly produce IgM antibodies that are polyreactive in nature. This experiment was initiated first to confirm whether trypanosome non-specific antibodies develop during the course of Trypanosoma congolense infections of susceptible Boran or resistant N’Dama cattle. In addition, to investigate whether a different trypanosome species, Trypanosoma vivax, can also induce these antibodies. Secondly, to investigate whether the CD5+ B cells, which increase during trypanosome infections of cattle, are the source of the trypanosome non-specific antibodies observed. Experimental infections were initiated Trypanosoma congolense by tsetsefly bite in 13 susceptible Boran and 6 resistant N’Dama cattle. A separate group of 4 Boran cattle was also infected with a different trypanosome species T. vivax. Serum samples were collected from infected cattle at different time points and tested in ELISA for trypanosome-specific and trypanosome non-specific antibodies. Seven Boran cattle from the T. congolense-vai&ci&d group were killed between 31-51 after infection and mononuclear cells prepared from spleen tissue. The cells were immunoglobulins using monoclonal antibody IL-A58. Separate populations of CD5+ and CD5' B cells were obtained by sorting using a flow-cytometer. Equal numbers of CD5+ and CD5' B cells were tested in the Silver Immunogold (SIG) blot assay for enumeration of number of cells secreting IgM, IgG and antibodies reacting with non-trypanosome antigens B-galactosidase, ovalbumin and lysozyme. ELISA tests on sera from both Boran and N’Dama cattle infected with Trypanosoma congolense revealed an increase in antibodies which react with a cytochrome, but less or no reactivity was found for antigens such as ssDNA and TNP. A similar development of trypanosome non-specific antibodies reacting with B-galactosidase was found in T. vivax infections of Boran cattle. The trypanosome non-specific antibodies were exclusively IgM, while the trypanosome-specific antibodies were both IgM and IgG. Results from the SIG blot assay revealed that numbers of IgM- and IgG-secreting cells were not different between CD5+ and CD5’ populations (P>0.05). However, significantly more cells in the CD5+ population secreted antibodies reacting with non-trypanosome antigens than in the CD5’ population (p<0.05). number of non-trypanosome antigens such as B-galactosidase, ferritin and double-stained for CD5 using monoclonal antibody IL-A67 and surface It is concluded from these studies that trypanosome non-specific antibodies develop during trypanosome infections of both in Boran and N’Dama cattle, they can be induced by different trypanosome species, are exclusively IgM and mainly secreted by the CD5+ B cells. In the first experiment, IgM antibodies reacting with a number of unrelated nontrypanosome antigens were detected in serum of trypanosome infected cattle. These antibodies were mainly secreted by the CD5+ B cells. However, the specificity of these antibodies is not known. Two alternative hypotheses have been put forward to explain the reactivity to unrelated antigens observed in serum of trypanosome infected cattle. The first one ascribes reactivity to unrelated antigens due to presence of different antibody clones, each one possessing different specifity to unrelated antigens due to presence of antibody molecules, each one capable of binding more than one unrelated antigens, such as the poly reactive antibodies secreted by murine and human CD5+ B cells. This experiment was initiated to investigate whether the trypanosome non-specific antibodies are polyclonal or poly reactive. A pool of serum was made from samples of 6 Boran cattle on 30 days after infection, when trypanosome non-specific antibody levels were highest. The serum as observed in cases of polyclonal activation. The second one attribute reactivity pool was passed through immunoaffinity colums conjugated with either trypanosome antigens or non-trypanosome antigen B-galactosidase. Antibody fractions that bound to the column and those which did not bind were collected and tested in ELISA for their reactivity to trypanosome and non-trypanosome antigens. The IgM fraction purified on B-galactosidase reacted with B-galactosidase, cytochrome, ferritin and the trypanosome lysate. Similar results were obtained for IgM fraction purified on a trypanosome lysate column. The IgM fraction that exhibited reactivity to different antigens was present in both pre-and post-infection only with trypanosome lysate but not with the non-trypanosome antigens. The trypanosome-specific IgG fraction was only found in post-infection sera. polyreactive. Their presence in pre-infection sera indicates that the infection does trypanosome-specific IgG antibodies are monoreactive and specifically induced by trypanosome infection. EXPERIMENT THREE Trypanosome infections in cattle induce production of both trypanosome-specific and the trypanosome non-specific antibodies. It is known that specific antibodies sera. In contrast, the IgG fraction purified on trypanosome lysate column reacted These results conclude that trypanosome non-specific IgM antibodies are polyreactive. Their presence in pre-infection sera indicates that the infection does trypanosome-specific IgG antibodies are monoreactive and specifically induced by trypanosome infection. EXPERIMENT THREE Trypanosome infections in cattle induce production of both trypanosome-specific and the trypanosome non-specific antibodies. It is known that specific antibodies sera. In contrast, the IgG fraction purified on trypanosome lysate column reacted These results conclude that trypanosome non-specific IgM antibodies are not specifically induce them, but helps to amplify their production. In contrast that are directed at the exposed determinants of the variable surface glycoprotein coat play a role of destruction of trypanosomes and eventual elimination of infection. However, the significance of specific antibodies, which recognize trypanosome non-specific antibodies are not known. Some workers suggested that antibodies recognizing products of lysed trypanosomes contribute to immunopathological processes such as development of anaemia. However, others suggested that some of these antibodies, such as those binding to trypanosome enzyme cystein protease may play a protective role to the host by neutralizing the enzymatic function of the enzyme. The polyreactive trypanosome non-specific antibodies may potentially bind to host or trypanosome antigens; and both pathogenic and protective consequences are possible. It is therefore, important to study regulation of antibody responses which takes place during trypanosome infections in cattle. Information obtained may help in designing means by which protective antibody responses can be selectively upregulated at the expense of pathogenetic responses. T lymphocytes play an important regulatory role on antibody responses. CD4+ T cells provide helper function to antibody production by B cells during T-cell dependent antibody responses. CD8+ T cells sometimes antibody responses during trypanosome infections of cattle is not known. The aim antibody response during T. congolense infection of Boran cattle. of this experiment was to investigate the role played by CD4+ or CD8+ on various antigens released after the destruction of trypanosomes, and the Cattle were depleted of CD4+ or CD8+-T cells subpopulations by intravenous injection of specific monoclonal antibodies IL-A11 or IL-A105 respectively, before infection. The levels of the two cell subsets in peripheral blood were monitored by flow-cytometric analyses. Serum samples collected at various time points were tested in ELISA for determination of levels of trypanosome-specific and trypanosome non-specific antibodies. Flow-cytometric analyses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells revealed a complete depletion of these T cells subpopulations over a period of two weeks. Serum samples collected at various time points were tested in ELISA assay for specific antibodies reacting with whole lysate of trypanosomes, non-specific antibodies reacting with a non-trypanosome antigen fl-galactosidase, and total IgM. Trypanosome-specific antibodies were detected in both IgM and IgG isotypes. In contrast, non-specific antibodies reacting with B-galactosidase were exclusively IgM. Depletion of CD4+-T cells significantly reduced levels of specific, nonspecific and total IgM (p<0.05) while depletion of CD8+-T cells no effect on these antibody types (p>0.05). These results show that CD4+-T cells play a crucial role in production of trypanosome-specific as well as the trypanosome non-specific antibody responses to T. congolense infection in susceptible Boran cattle. CD8 T cells have no effect onantibody responses to trypanosome infections in cattle.
Enhancement of smallholder dairy production under tropical conditions through supplementation to optimise roughage intake, digestibility and microbial protein synthesis
(The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, 2001) Mlay, Paul N. S.
This thesis addresses the nutritional related constraints facing the smallholder diary sector in Tanzania in general and Morogoro in particular. Smallholder dairy production practices and feeds were assessed though a structured survey carried out between January and March 1999 (Paper I). Monthly collection of forages used by farmers was done over a one-year period. The forage samples were analysed for chemical composition and in vitro organic matter digestibility to determine the annual variations in the nutritional quality. It was found that smallholder producers were playing a key role in the provision of dairy products that are in high demand in urban areas like Morogoro, in Tanzania. One of the limiting factors to enhanced productivity was the fall in milk yield (more than 40%) during die dry season. Forage analyses revealed that there was a fall in nitrogen and Metabolizable energy contents and organic matter digestibility with advancing dry season. The impact of low nitrogen in the basal feeds on animal performance was further investigated in an on station experiment set to determine the effects of nitrogen supplementation on feed intake, digestibility and rumen fermentation in animals fed poor quality forage (Paper II). In a 5x5 Latin square design, five ruminally fistulated heifers were assigned to either low quality hay only or supplemented with either low or high level of true protein (soyabean cake) or non-protein nitrogen (urea) (Paper II). At each level of supplementation, both urea and soyabean cake were iso-nitrogenous. Both soyabean cake and urea supplementation of poor quality forages led to significant improvement in the dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and plant fibre digestibility and microbial protein synthesis. Soyabean cake showed marginally higher (not significant) responses in most parameters at all levels compared to urea except for digestible NDF digestibility where the high level of urea supplementation showed a higher (not significant) value compared to soyabean cake. The superiority of soyabean cake may have been due to the extra DM, energy, pre-formed amino acids, minerals and extra amino acids arising from by-pass protein invariably associated with this supplement. Calculated price of supplemental protein from soyabean cake was about 3.3 Tsh compared to 0.1 Tshs per gram CP urea (see Table 1). Therefore, as far as fermentation of plant fibre was concerned, urea was equally good and a better option given the high prices of true protein sources like soyabean cake. One other interesting observation during the survey (Paper I) was the attempts by farmers to offer supplements to their cows especially the lactating ones. Surprisingly, most of the supplements used were energy rich (maize bran, molasses and cassava flour)ii while protein rich supplements were rarely used. A second on station experiment was set to investigate the effects of the commonly used supplements and a feed additive called “Magadi” on the intake and utilisation of poor quality roughage (Paper III). The experimental set up was a 5x5 Latin square design involving 5 ruminally fistulated heifers, 5 treatments and 5 periods of 28 days each. The treatments were poor quality hay plus maize bran (2.7kg DM) (control), or the control plus starch (0.9 kg DM cassava flour), sugars (1.3kg DM molasses) or “Magadi” (0.3kg). The fifth treatment was the poor quality hay supplemented with concentrate mixture (2.8kg DM) containing energy (68% maize bran) and protein (31% sunflower cake) and 1% mineral commercial mineral powder instead of the maize bran used in the control. Inclusion of “Magadi” or molasses or cassava flour in animals receiving equal amounts of maize bran produced variable results. Sugars increased OM intake and digestibility with little change in NDF digestibility compared to the control. Starch increased DM and OM intake and digestibility but reduced NDF digestibility due to high passage rate of NDF. “Magadi” did not improve DM intake but NDF digestibility and microbial protein synthesis were higher compared to supplementation with maize bran alone. There was also a higher in situ degradation of hay DM from dacron bags soaked in “Magadi” for 24 hours prior incubation in the rumen of standard cows compared to those soaked in tap water. This suggested that better response might be obtained through treatment of poor quality hay with “Magadi” than direct feeding. The supplement that contained a mixture of maize bran and sunflower cake fed to about 35% of total DM intake improved intake and digestibility of poor quality roughage compared to supplementing with plain maize bran as is the common practice with smallholder farmers in Morogoro. It was interesting to investigate whether the energy-protein concentrate mixture could be used by smallholder farmers in Morogoro as dry season supplement in order to arrest or reduce the fall in productivity during this season when the basal feeds are deficient in nitrogen and to some degree, energy. The major ingredients for making such a mixture (maize bran and sunflower cake) are easily available and reasonably cheap in Morogoro. Farmers were trained on how to compound such supplement on their own at farm level. The effect of feeding the concentrate mixture or maize bran alone as commonly done by most farmers was assessed through an on farm trial involving a total of 18 farms and 47 milking cows (Paper IV) in urban and peri-urban areas of Morogoro.
Genetic determination of immune responses to Newcastle disease virus vaccine in chickens
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2002) Lwelamira, James
A study was conducted at Sokoine University of Agriculture to investigate the genetic control of immune response of chickens against Newcastle disease virus (NOV) vaccine. The study involved local chickens from Tanzania (LL), Rhode Island Red derivative hybrids (EE), and their reciprocal crosses (LE and EL). The local ecotype had the highest mean antibody titres following primary vaccination, as well as before (residual) and after secondary vaccination, while the exotic breed had the lowest titres in all three measurements. The crossbred chicks were found to be intermediate between the two parental genotypes, but the differences between the local ecotype and the crosses were not significant except for the primary vaccination antibody titre. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between the reciprocal crosses. Differences between sexes were not significant. Despite the observed superiority of the local ecotype for antibody titre, there were no significant differences among genotypes with respect to mortality rate. Heritability estimates for antibody titre ranged from 0.27 ± 0.06 to 0.39 ± 0.09, 0.17 ± 0.03 to 0.32 ± 0.11, and 0.18 ± 0.08 to 0.28 ± 0.08 for antibody titre following primary vaccination, before, and after secondary vaccination, respectively. While the contribution of additive breed merit and heterosis effects in antibody titre before and after secondary vaccination were both significant, only the contribution of additive breed merits were significant for primary immune response. There were no significant correlation coefficients between antibody titres at different periods of measurement, nor between antibody titres and body weights. It was concluded that substantial improvement in immunological status of a stock against Newcastle disease could be achieved through both selection and crossbreeding
Epidemiology and control of worm infections in cattle on traditional, small-scale and large-scale dairy farms in Iringa district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2004) Keyyu, Julius Dotto
This study aimed to determine worm control practices, anthelmintic usage and the epidemiology of gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes and flukes (Fasciola and amphistomes) in cattle on traditional, large-scale and small-scale dairy farms in Iringa District, Tanzania. A combination of qualitative data collection methods was used to obtain information on worm control practices and anthelmintic usage on the cattle farms. Strategic treatments, efficacy trials, an abattoir survey based on examination of GI tracts, cross sectional and longitudinal studies based on monthly coprological examination of cohorts for nematode and fluke eggs, worm counts in tracer calves and pasture larval counts were used to obtain quantitative data on helminth infections. Results indicated that worm control was based entirely on routine use of anthelmintics in 87.7%, 1 00% and 97.8% of traditional, large-scale and small scale-dairy farms respectively. Dairy farmers (55.5%) treated at least four times a year while traditional farmers (45.8%) treated twice a year. The treatment period on most farms depended on availability of money and not on the epidemiology of parasites. Absence of policy on worm control, lack of quality assurance of anthelmintics, inadequate extension workers and low education among farmers contributed significantly to irrational worm control and anthelmintic usage. The type of management especially the grazing practice had significant influence on the prevalence and intensity of GI nematodes and flukes. The prevalence of GI nematodes in traditional, large-scale and small-scale dairy cattle was 67%, 44.4% and 37% respectively. Worm burdens in tracers were mainly composed of Cooperia spp (51.6%), Oesophagostoinum radlatum (35.7%) and Haemonchus placet (10.2%). Faecal egg counts (EEC) and tracer worm counts were generally low and peaked only in calves and weaners. Pasture larval counts, FEC and tracer worm counts peaked toward the end of the rainy season (May). The overall prevalence of Fasciola gigantica in traditional, large-scale and small-scale dairy cattle was 63.8%, 46.2% and 28.4% respectively. The prevalence of amphistomes was 81.9%, 55.5% and 41.1% in traditional, large-scale and small-scale dairy cattle respectively. Adult animals had the highest prevalence of both Fasciola and amphistomes. The prevalence of flukes was high in all age groups on traditional cattle, only in adults arid yearlings in large-scale dairy cattle and low in all age groups in small-scale dairy cattle. The proportion of animals excreting fluke eggs in faeces was highest at the end of the dry season (November) and the early part of the rainy season. Triclabendazole (Fasinex®), nitroxynil (Trodax®) and ivermectin-clorsulon (Ivomec- Super®) were highly effective against Fasciola', a reduced efficacy of levamisole- oxyclozanide formulations was suspected. Strategic treatment with triclabendazole at the end of the rainy/early dry season significantly reduced the proportion of animals excreting Fasciola eggs while albendazole treatment maintained low nematode FEC until the next rainy season. It was concluded that helminths infection in the district has a seasonal pattern and farmers could save substantial amounts of money through strategic treatment programmes. Strategic treatments at the end of the rainy/early dry season (May/June) and at the end of the dry/early rainy season (November/December) are recommended for sustainable and cost-effective helminth control in the district. An additional treatment against GI nematodes in the middle of the rainy season (February/March) is recommended especially in calves and weaners. Treatment against GI nematodes and flukes in all age groups in small-scale dairy cattle might not be necessary if animals will be given pasture from clean areas.
Epidemiology and control of porcine cysticercosis in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2005) Boa, Mathias Emmanuel
In Study 1 predilection sites for cysticerci of Taenia solium were determined by calculating relative cyst density for different carcass sites. The psoas muscle was found to be an important site for localization of cysliccrci in pig carcasses followed by muscles of Triceps brachii. tongue, internal masseters, external masseters, diaphragm and heart as important sites for localisation of cystcerci in pigs. Based on these findings, all of these muscle groups/organs are proposed as predilection sites of T. solium in Tanzanian pigs and thus their examination should be mandatory for efficient routine inspection of pig carcasses. Tongue examination survey results from Chunya and Iringa Rural Districts, (Study II), showed that the two districts are endemic for porcine cysticercosis with prevalences of 7.6% and 8.4%, respectively. Structured questionnaire interviews identified factors associated with the disease prevalence in both Chunya and Iringa Rural Districts were free- ranging of pigs, home slaughtering of pigs and pork not being inspected. While in Chunya and Iringa Rural Districts lack of latrine and barbecuing were found a risk factor, respectively. In Study III, conducted in Mgeta Division, ante mortem tongue examination of 609 pigs and post mortem pork inspection of 124 carcasses found that they were all negative. These results instigated the interview study of relevant local parties, the findings of which were, none of the respondents reported having ever seen any cysts in pork or pigs. Availability, maintenance and use of latrines was found to be very high throughout Mgeta Division (97.6%) and in every village pigs are required to be kept totally confined. Health Centre data indicated that there were no cases of taeniosis, cholera or shigellosis reported during the last five years (1998 - 2002). There is an urgent need to transfer the important lessons from Mgeta districts such as Chunya and Iringa Rural. In Study IV sensitivity and specificity of the tongue examination and antigen ELISA [Ag-ELISA] tests were compared in local Tanzanian pigs and it was observed that Ag-ELISA was more sensitive [3.6 times] than tongue examination and therefore would be more appropriate for surveillance in Tanzanian pigs.
Coenurosis in slab-slaughtered sheep and goats in Ngorongoro district: prevalence and predisposing factors of the disease
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Miran, Miran Bushelegi
Taenia multiceps is a worldwide in distribution which inhabits the small intestine of dogs, foxes, coyotes and jackals. However, until recently, there were no reports of the occurrence of Taenia multiceps associated ill health in Tanzania in livestock. In this study, the prevalence of Taenia multiceps metacestode (Coenurus cerebralis) as well as other Taenia and Echinococcus metacestodes particularly Cysticercus tenuicollis and hydatid cysts in slab-slaughtered sheep and goats, community knowledge and predisposing factors of coenurosis in Ngorongoro district were determined. The study reports for the first time the occurrence on the one hand and the prevalence on the other hand of coenurosis in slaughtered sheep and goats due to Taenia multiceps metacestode (Coenurus cerebralis) in Ngorongoro district. Of 180 examined carcasses of sheep and goats, 80 (44.4%), 93 (51.7%) and 35 (19.4%) were found to be infected with C. cerebralis, C. tenuicollis and Hydatid cysts respectively whereas some had concurrent infections. Widespread dog keeping for herding purposes, large dog population, close contact between small ruminants (sheep and goats) and dogs, lack of knowledge in the community on how coenurosis occurs, free access of dogs to carcases/offal including brains of small ruminants sometimes containing viable C. cerebralis cysts and inadequate animal health services for dogs especially worm control are major factors which contribute to persisting coenurosis. Thus, knowledge of epidemiology of the disease is critical for the effective disease management and control (health protection and disease prevention). To address these, the development of a control strategy (programme) is required. Therefore, much remains to be done in research to pave the way for coenurosis control and the findings of this study can be used to guide future research programmes.
Characterization and thermostabilization of avibacterium paragallinarum candidate strains with potential use as candidate vaccine strains in Tanzania
(Sokoine University Of Agriculture, 2013) Chota, Andrew Claud
This study was conducted to isolate, characterize, thermostabilize and develop an easier and cheap technique for preparation of inactivated and live vaccines against Infectious coryza (IC). Fifty six (56) samples were collected from chicken. Fourty eight percent (27) isolates had phenotypic characteristics suggestive of both pathogenic and non-pathogenic Avibacterium species. Fifty nine percent (16) of 27 isolates were catalase negative, oxidase positive and NAD dependent. Moreover, they were positive to fructose, maltose, and sucrose, but negative to lactose and urease suggesting that they were Avibacterium paragallinarum. Identification and serotyping by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmed that they were Av. paragallinarum serovar B. Chocolate broth (CB), a novel medium was used to propagate Av. paragallinarum. The broth’s ability to support growth of Av. paragallinarum was compared to other three routine media and analysed using t- test. Results showed that null hypothesis was accepted between allantoic fluid (AF) and CB and between CB and modified brain heart infusion (MBHI) and was rejected between CB and brain heart infusion (BHI). The cost of production of 1 mL of CB was twenty six (26) times lower than the cost of producing AF and four (4) times lower than MBHI and BHI, therefore, CB is preferred as it is an easy to prepare and cheap medium. Av. paragallinarum isolates were thermostable at room temperature (RT) at the temperature range of 27-290C. The bacteria were recovered after storage for three months at RT in 2.5% gelatin. The findings from the present study have shown that Av. paragallinarum serotype B and other members of the genus Avibacterium exist in Tanzania. Propagation of Av. paragallinarum CB will possibly result in production of vaccines that are cheap and affordable to farmers. Furthermore, preservation of Av. paragallinarum in 2.5% gelatin for 3 months is a significant finding for development of live vaccines against IC.
Studies on the prevalance of east coast fever among cattle in Kilosa district
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Tarimo, Mary Aloyce
The most important bovine theilerial species in sub-Saharan Africa, Theileria parva, causes widespread morbidity and mortality in endemic areas. A study was conducted in Kilosa District, Morogoro Region, to determine sero - prevalence of Theileria parva, knowledge, attitude and practices of livestock keepers on East Coast Fever (ECF). The prevalence of ECF in indigenous cattle was determined by measuring serum antibodies to Theileria parva using ELISA technique. Three hundred and eighty two (382) serum samples were collected and analysed, whereby 31 (8.1%) tested positive for T. parva infection. Knowledge of the farmers on disease constraints, tick species, tick control measures and socio economic characteristics were determined using questionnaire and Focus group discussion. Majority of the respondents (49.1%) had no education, while (47.1%) had primary school education and few (3.8%) had an adult learning education. The major source of household income in the study areas were sales of livestock, livestock products and crop products. Majority of the farmers were able to mention common ticks, but they were not able to identify exactly which tick transmits ECF. Hand spraying was the commonest method for acaricide application, because dips were not in working condition and the tendency of the pastoralists to move from one place to another searching for pasture. Majority reported that they did not know other control measures while few said that they usually treat their animals which fell sick. Most of the farmers declared that they were not aware of ECF immunization and very few were aware of ECF immunization. It is concluded that cattle production in Kilosa District is maintained under a state of endemic instability, as the seroprevalence for Theileria parva was less than 70%, suggesting that appropriate tick and theileriosis control strategies are required. Thus, there is a need to develop tick control strategies that can be adopted by farmers in Kilosa District in order to reduce losses due to ECF.
Screening for foot and mouth disease virus in buffaloes and cattle in selected livestock-wildlife interface areas of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Peter, Emma
Rapid and accurate diagnosis is paramount in understanding the infection status of foot and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) in animals. In this study, the singleplex real time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) assay employing the Callahan 3DF-2, 3DF-R primers and Callahan 3DP-1 probe were used in screening for FMDV genome on esophageal–pharyngeal (OP) fluids. The OP samples were collected from cattle and African buffaloes in livestock-wildlife interface areas of Mikumi, Mkomazi and Ruaha National Parks in Tanzania in 2011, which included National Parks and surrounding areas. The detection rates of FMDV genome were 5.88% (n = 3), 19.44% (n = 7) and 41.18% (n = 21) in Mkomazi, Ruaha and Mikumi National Parks, respectively. FMDV detection rates in Mkomazi and Mikumi were significantly higher in the African buffaloes (p < 0.05) compared to that in cattle. There was no correlation of FMDV detection with either age or sex of the animals in the three National Parks. These findings indicate that cattle and buffaloes in Mikumi, Ruaha and Mkomazi were naturally infected with FMDV. Furthermore, the higher FMDV detection rates in buffaloes suggest that buffaloes could potentially act as reservoirs for FMDV and possibly play a significant role in transmission of the virus to other in-contact susceptible animals. Further studies, including serotyping, virus isolation, experimental infection and sequencing of the viruses, are required to elucidate the complex epidemiology of FMD in cattle and buffaloes in the livestock-wildlife interface areas in Tanzania.
Epidemiological study of rift valley fever virus in Kigoma, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Kifaro, Emmanuel George
Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an acute, zoonotic viral disease, caused by a Phlebovirus belonging to the Bunyaviridae family. RVF virus (RVFV) historically has been responsible for large explosive outbreaks of severe human and animal disease throughout Africa and recently in the Arabian Peninsula. In animals, it mainly affects domestic ruminants such as sheep, goats and cattle. RVFV outbreaks among livestock are economically devastating and often characterized by large sweeping abortion storms and significant mortality in adult livestock. This study was conducted to investigate RVF infection in Kigoma region. Regional wide serosurvey and conventional gel based single tube RT-PCR were conducted in Kigoma region on non- vaccinated small ruminants (sheep and goats). The study included 411 animals (32 sheep and 379 goats) sampled in 3 districts namely; Kigoma rural, Kasulu and Kibondo. Sera of animals were tested for the detection of immunoglobulins G (IgG) against RVFV using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) kit. Past infections were detected in 22 of 411 animals (5.4% at 95% CI 3.5 % to 8.1%) from all three districts. Kigoma rural recorded higher seroprevalence of 12.0% (CI 7.3% to 18.3%; P<0.0001) followed by Kibondo (2.3% [0.5% to 6.5%]; P>0.05) and Kasulu districts (0.8% [0.0% to 4.2%]; P>0.05). The prevalence was 12.5% and 4.7% for sheep and goats respectively. RT-PCR results indicated that only 8 samples were found positive (n=63) including 22 positive samples for IgG ELISA, where none was RT-PCR positive. This study has confirmed, for the first time, the presence of RVFV in Kigoma region, 4 years after the 2007 epizootic in Tanzania, and suggests further that the virus activity exists during the interepizootic period (IEP) even in regions with no history of RVF. In-depth studies should be conducted to clarify the complex epidemiology of RVF in the country.
Spatial and temporal distribution of foot and mouth disease virus in the eastern zone of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Mwanandota, Julius Joseph
This study was conducted to establish the spatial and temporal distribution of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) serotypes and evaluate the awareness of people on FMD in the eastern zone of Tanzania. Both observational prospective studies involving serological analysis, FMDV antigen detection and questionnaire survey, and retrospective study on FMDV antigen detection were used in this research. Seroprevalence of antibodies to the nonstructural protein 3ABC of FMDV and serotype-specific antigen detection were investigated by using SVANOVIR® FMDV 3ABC-Ab ELISA and indirect-sandwich ELISA (sELISA), respectively, while structured questionnaire was used to evaluate the awareness of people on FMD. Both serum and tissue samples were collected from cattle suspected of FMD in six districts of two regions in the eastern zone of Tanzania during the period of 2010 to 2011. A total of 41 (43.6%) out of 94 tested sera in six district were seropositive to non-structural 3ABC protein, with the highest seroprevalence of 81% in Bagamoyo district followed by Kibaha(56.2%), Kinondoni (41.7%), Ilala (34.8%), Kisarawe (16.7%) and Temeke (15.4%) districts. Three FMDV serotypes, namely O, A and SAT 2, were detected in the eastern zone between 2001 and 2011 with type O being the most frequently detected serotype (n = 9; 60%) followed by type SAT 2 (n = 5; 33.3%) and type A (n = 1; 6.7%). Questionnaire survey had revealed high (74.4%) general FMD awareness by farmers, with 75% being knowledgeable on transmission and FMD susceptible animal species in the eastern zone. These findings indicate that the eastern zone of Tanzania is predominantly infected with FMDV serotypes O, A, and SAT 2 with different spatial and temporal distribution, and that FMD outbreaks in the zone could be incriminated to at least these three serotypes. These observations imply that a rational control of FMD by vaccination in the eastern zone of Tanzania should consider incorporation of serotypes O, A and SAT 2 in the relevant vaccine(s). Further studies are required to elucidate the genetic and antigenic characteristics of circulating FMDV strains in the eastern zone of Tanzania so that an appropriate FMD control measure can be recommended in this region.
Biological activity of extracts from commiphora swynnertonii against microbes of veterinary importance in chickens
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Bakari, Gaymary George
Studies were carried out to establish ethno-botanical information and biological activities of crude extracts from Commiphora swynnertonii against selected microbes of veterinary importance in chickens. Initially, a questionnaire survey was conducted to gather information on practices and knowledge on ethno-botanical uses of C. swynnertonii in the study area. Then extracts from different morphological parts of the study plant were tested against selected bacteria and fungi in vitro using agar well diffusion assay. Resin and root bark extracts showed significant activities (P < 0.001) against S. pyogenes, E. coli and B. subtilis compared to other extracts. The fungi, C. albicans and A. niger, were moderately inhibited. Antiviral activity of the resin and root bark extract was tested in ovo using embryonated chicken eggs inoculated with Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Both extracts significantly (P < 0.001) and effectively reduced virus titres. An animal trial was carried out using the resin and chickens experimentally infected with NDV. Results revealed significant reduction (P < 0.05) in clinical signs and mortality rates following administration of the resin before and after the infection. Prophylactic administration of the extract was found to be more effective than the therapeutic approach. HI titres decreased significantly (P < 0.001) in resin and root bark treated groups and in all chickens treated with resin irrespective of dose given and on whether the extract was administered before or after infection suggesting that the plant materials were capable of destroying the NDV before stimulating the developing chick‘s immunity. Another animal trial investigated the effect of the resin against experimental coccidiosis in chickens. Results showed that oral administration of the resin significantly (P < 0.001) reduced mortality rate. Safety margin of the resin was also investigated by determining its effects on selected physiological and biochemical parameters in chickens. The results revealed a good margin of safety provided that the dosage ranges between 200 to 800 mg resin/kg body weights. A phytochemical study was also carried to determine major bioactive compounds in the resin and root bark extracts. With these studies, it is concluded that extracts from C. swynnertonii especially resin, has significant antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticoccidial effect against the selected microbes. Further research is required to test and validate the extract against other pathogens of medical and veterinary importance.
Genetic Diversity of Rice (Oryza sativa l.) Landraces conserved at the National Genebank as revealed by simple sequence repeat (SSR) DNA markers
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Mausa, Emmanuel Abrahamu
There is high degree of rice diversity in Tanzania. Increased human population pressure and activities has caused the population of wild rice to disappear at alarming rate. NPGRC collected over 125 accessions of rice landraces and 7 wild relatives for conservation and sustainable utilization in improvement programs, but no morphological or genetic diversity study that have been done to support any future collections. An investigation was conducted to determine the extent of genetic diversity and relationship among 79 rice (Oryza sativa L.) landraces and its wild relative conserved at the NPGRC in Tanzania. Fourteen quantitative morphological characters analysed indicated that rice Germplasm conserved at the NPGRC has considerable diversity range. The yield related characters such as grain length (r = 0.360), flag leaf width (r = 0.511), and one hundred seed weight (r = 0.319) showed significant and positive association with grain yield per accession. Principal components analysis indicated that the first four components with Eigen values >1 accounted for 63.99% of the morphological variability among rice accessions studied. The cluster analysis grouped accessions into four groups, one group for wild rice accession and the rest three groups for mixed accessions. Five SSR primers were used to determine genetic diversity, 11 polymorphic alleles were revealed, alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 3. Primer RM 333 revealed large number of alleles. Jaccard’s similarity coefficient revealed that most of the accessions evaluated were genetically similar, except few are distinct. Study also highlighted use of large number of SSR markers (>5) for efficient characterization of the rice accessions conserved at the genebank and those used in this study. This work is expected to be published in African Journal of Biotechnology (AJB); Academic Journal.
Prevalence of plasmodium infection and accuracy of diagnostic tests for malaria infection in children under five in the health zone of Mont Ngafula1, an endemic area for malaria in Kinshasa, DRC
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Tevuzula, Vivi Maketa
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is one of the five countries that carry half of the global disease burden. Yet, malaria is an entirely preventable and treatable disease, when currently recommended interventions are properly implemented. Such interventions include confirmation of malaria diagnosis through microscopy or malaria rapid diagnostic tests (MRDTs) for every suspected case, even in children under five years of age. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of malaria infection and the performances of MRDT, the SD-Bioline a HRP2/PanLDH test using microscopy and PCR as the gold standard in a population based survey in children under five years of age living in endemic transmission settings. This is a cross sectional based survey conducted in the health areas in the health zone of Mont Ngafula1 during the dry season from April to August 2012. A total of 812 children of 3 to 59 months of age were included from the 2 selected HA. The sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values with their CI 95% were 93.5% (90.0-97.1), 81.1% (77.9-84.2), 60.6% (55.0-66.3) and 97.5% (96.2-98.9), respectively, in the overall study population when using microscopy as the gold standard and 88%.2 (79.2-97.3), 92.0% (84.3-99.7), 88.4% (79.6-97.3) and 91.8% (84.0-99.7) respectively, when PCR was used as the reference test . The prevalence of malaria with microscopy was 24.9% (CI 95%: 21.0-26.7).The differences between PCR and microscopy with the specificity or and the PPV in the overall population might be due to the threshold detection of microscopy that does not detect very low parasite density. The results of this study show the limitation of the MRDT SD-Bioline, a HRP2/PanLDH test, on population based survey because of the risk of an overestimation of the infection prevalence in children aged less than five years.
Foot-and-mouth disease seroprevalence and socioeconomic impact in relation to animal movements in selected wildlife-livestock interface and non interface areas of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Mdetele, Daniel Pius
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute, highly contagious viral infection of domestic and wild cloven-hoofed animals. In Tanzania the disease is known to be endemic with periodic outbreaks occurring in different geographical areas. This study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and socio-economic impact of FMD in relation to livestock movements in a wildlife–livestock interface ecosystem (Serengeti and Bunda Districts) compared to a noninterface ecosystem (Iramba and Kongwa Districts). The study attempted to establish the socio-economic impact of FMD in these study districts. Four hundred serum samples were collected from Serengeti (n = 100), Bunda (n = 100), Kongwa (n = 100) and Iramba (n = 100) and tested for FMD antibodies presence using 3ABC-ELISA. In addition, forty questionnaire copies to establish the socio-economic impact of FMD were administered to livestock keepers: Serengeti (n = 10), Bunda (n = 10), Kongwa (n =10) and Iramba (n = 10). Significantly higher association between geographical areas and seroprevalence was recorded in the wildlife-livestock interface areas (71.5%; 143/200) compared to non-interface areas (61.0%; 122/200) (X2 = 4.9308, p = 0.0264, C.F 95%). Socially, FMD outbreaks impact on food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and medical costs (77.5%). Economically, FMD impacts were observed in losses associated with treatment costs (87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower livestock weight gain (60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply costs (2.5%). In conclusion, FMD is more prevalent at the wildlife-livestock interface (71.5%) than in non-interface areas (61.0%). Higher percentages in case response on social impacts and economic losses indicate magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD in both ecosystems. However, lower percentage on case response to vaccine supply cost indicates there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance and characterization of fecal indicator bacteria and staphylococcus aureus from farm animals, wildlife, pets and humans in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Katakweba, Abdul Ahmed Selemani
This thesis is prepared according to “Publishable manuscript” format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. It is divided into four sections; the first section presents introduction, problem statement, objectives, rationale of the study and hypothesis while the second section is a review of literature in relation to the work performed. The third section contains four manuscripts which cover the research work done, whereas the last section details overall conclusions of the study. The first manuscript is about the findings on the awareness of risks associated with antimicrobials use and practices that contribute to selection for antimicrobial resistance in livestock. The second and the third Manuscripts present the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in indicator bacteria namely S. aureus from nostrils, E. coli and Enterococci spp from faecal samples obtained from livestock, dogs and contact human beings, and the last manuscript presents findings on antimicrobial resistance in faecal indicator organisms from buffalo, wildebeest, zebra and cattle grazing with wild ungulates. The studies involved testing resistance using antibiotic discs, inclusion of antibiotics in the media and evaluating bacterial DNA for resistance genes against commonly used antibiotics in livestock. In response to the first objective presented in manuscript 1, awareness of human health risks due to use of antibiotics among livestock keepers and factors that contribute to selection of antibiotic resistance bacteria within livestock in Tanzania were determined. Looking at awareness on health risks among the livestock keepers surveyed, one hundred and sixty randomly selected Tanzanian small-scale livestock keepers were involved in the questionnaire-based survey. The results showed that 30% of the respondents were not aware of the concept of antibiotic resistance whereas 52% were not aware of the types of diseases that can be treated with antibiotics, 22% did not know the essence of withdrawal period after treatment of animals with antibiotics and 40% did not know if antibiotics used in livestock pose risk to human health. Side effects of antibiotics to human beings known by the respondents include drug resistance, allergy, poisoning, skin rashes and cancer. Further, it was found that the most commonly used antibiotics were oxytetracyline (TE) (62.9 %) followed by sulphadimidine/ trimethoprim / (STX) (23.2 %), penicillin-streptomycin (13.4 %) and gentamycin (CN) (0.5 %).Only 54% of the respondents obtained their antibiotics through prescription by veterinarians. Potential risk factors were identified to be the sources of development of antimicrobials resistance. These included livestock management systems, antibiotics handling and types of antibiotics used in the study areas. Points of selling antibiotics and their prescriptions were found to be handled by agriculture and veterinary input shops, veterinarians, livestock markets and exhibition areas. The study concludes that there is a gross lack of awareness on health threats associated with antibiotics resistance among the farming communities thus posing serious public health threats in Tanzania.
Investigating the perfomance of lateral flow devices in diagnosis and genetic characterization of foot and mouth disease virus in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2015) Raphael, Paulo Fupi
A study on rapid detection and diagnosis of foot and mouth disease (FMD) field outbreaks was carried out in field settings using a Svanodip® foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV)- antigen (Ag) test lateral flow device (LFD) in Serengeti and Ngorongoro districts of Tanzania. Epithelial tissues from cattle (n=80) were collected from different villages and tested at penside using Svanodip® FMDV-antigen test to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of LFDs relative to gold standard reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) molecular technique for FMDV. The duplicates of same epithelial tissues were stored in liquid nitrogen and transported to the laboratory for confirmation using gold standard RT-PCR technique targeting conserved region (3D) region of the FMDVgenome. Seventy eight samples showed positive reaction to LFDs antigen test and two samples were negative. All eighty samples collected during this study were positive to RT-PCR gold standard. LFDs and RT-PCR showed sensitivity and specificity of 97.5% and 100% respectively. There was no significant difference on the results of LFDs and RT-PCR in relation to the age of the lesions and type of epithelial tissues used (P>0.05). Tested LFDs were kept at-20°C and at room temperature for six and eight months respectively and possibility of FMDV RNA recovery was done. LFDs kept at room temperature for eight months were shown to be good vehicle for recovery, storage and transportation of FMDV RNA, than those kept at -20°C for six months. Antigen ELISA serotyping revealed that serotype A and O were associated with the current FMD outbreaks in the studied villages. Although, the lateral flow devices are panserotypic and provide point of care results for the rapid detection and the diagnosis of FMDV field outbreaks, their use must go in parallel with (OIE) gold standard technique for confirmation of FMDV outbreaks. Further studies are required to validate and deploy the LFDs for a wider application for FMDV outbreak investigations in Tanzania.
The spectrum of bacteria causing urinary tract infection among pregnant women attending Sabasaba clinic and their susceptibility to antimicrobial agents
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2015) Matalingana, Ramadhan Ally
Urinary tract infections (UTI) during pregnancy can lead to serious obstetric complications, poor maternal and perinatal outcomes. The purpose of this study was to determinethe prevalence of bacterial UTI in pregnant women in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. This study was conducted at SabaSaba Health Centre from May 2014 to July 2014 involving 196 pregnant women. Mid stream of urine samples were obtained and analyzed by dipstick and processed for culture. Out of 196 pregnant women studied 13.8% had significant bacterial UTI. Escherichia coli were the most prevalent isolated bacteria with 12 isolates (44.4%).Other isolated organisms were Klebsiella species (3; 11.1%), Proteus species (2; 7.4%), Enterococcus faecalis (3; 11.1%), Coagulase negative Staphylococcus (5; 19%) and Staphylococcus aureus (2; 7.1%).Antimicrobial sensitivity test results showed that out of12 E. coli isolates, 33%, 42%, 50%, 50%, 67%, 83%, were resistant to ciprofloxacin, ampicillin, tetracycline, amoxicillin, cotrimoxazole and erythromycin respectively. Out of three Klebsiella species, 33% were resistant to ciprofloxacin, 67% were resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin and tetracycline and 100% were resistant to cotrimoxazole and erythromycin. Two Proteus species isolated showed 100% resistance to tetracycline and cotrimoxazole and 0% resistance to amoxicillin, ampicillin, ciprofloxacin and erythromycin. Two Staphylococci aureus isolates showed 50% resistance to ampicillin, amoxicillin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, cotrimoxazole and erythromycin. Five Coagulase negative Staphylococci isolates showed 20% resistance to ampicillin, amoxicillin and ciprofloxacin, 60% to tetracycline, cotrimoxazole and erythromycin.Three Entrerococcus faecalis isolates showed 100% resistance to ampicillin, amoxicillin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, ii cotrimoxazole and erythromycin. Using univariate analysis there was no significant association of age, parity, gestational age, education, marital status, and history of UTI with bacteriuria. The study showed that only ciprofloxacin could be the drug of choice for treatment UTI, but it is contraindicated during pregnancy. Further studies of antimicrobial sensitivity of isolates fromUTI during pregnancy are recommended.

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