Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Effect of partial deoxygenation of semen dilutor with oxyrase on freezability of bull spermatozoa
(ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, 2019) Ngou, Athanas Alex
Poor survival of the spermatozoa after cryoprcscrvation is vastly contributed by damages resulted from temperature stress, osmotic stress and oxidative stress. The current study intended to optimize the concentration of Oxyrasc (partial deoxygenating agent) in the semen di tutor and to evaluate its el feet on frcczability of Sahiwal bull spermatozoa. The selected ejaculates (n=24) were categorized into poor ejaculates (n= I 2) and good ejaculates (n= 12) based on their initial progressive motility. Besides that, each selected ejaculate was divided into two groups and diluted with tris-egg yolk extender containing no Oxyrasc or 0.125 lU/mL of Oxyrasc for the control and treatment groups, respectively. Parameters evaluated were bacterial load, seminal plasma cholesterol (SPC) and plasma membrane phospholipids (PMP) at fresh stage while individual progressive motility (IPM). acrosomal integrity and plasma membrane integrity (PM I) at post-dilution stage. At pre-freeze stage dissolved oxygen (DO). IPM. acrosomal integrity, PM1. SPC, PMP and oxidative stress (LPO. TAC and ROS) were evaluated. Bacterial load and all the pre freeze parameters were again evaluated at post-thaw stage. Oxyrase al 0.125 ILI/mL concentration significantly reduced DO in the dilutor to 4 ppm in 16-18 minutes at 35"C. Significantly higher progressive motility was observed in the Oxyrasc treated groups at post-thaw stage of good ejaculates category in comparison to control. The lowest decline in progressive motility from post-dilution to post-thaw was observed in the Oxyrasc treated group of good ejaculates category and the highest decline was in the control group of poor ejaculates category. The per cent intact acrosome differed significantly between treatment and control groups of good ejaculates category at post-thaw stage. Significant (p<0.05) difference in plasma membrane integrity was observed at pre-freeze stage of poor ejaculates category between the treatment group and control group. The lowest decline in plasma membrane intactness from post-dilution to post-thaw was observed in treatment group of good ejaculates category while the highest decline was in control group of poor ejaculates category. The trend of increase in cholesterol efflux was significantly observed from fresh to pre-freeze stage and post-thaw stage. However, the treatment groups at post-thaw stage in both categories had significantly less cholesterol efflux in comparison to their control groups. No significant difference in plasma membrane phospholipids concentration was observed between the Oxyrasc treated and non-treated groups at all stages oi both ejaculate categories. The treatment groups of good ejaculate category had significantly (p<0.05) lower levels of lipid peroxidation in comparison to their control group at pre-freeze and post-thaw stages. The level of antioxidant capacity was significantly (p<0.05) higher in the treatment groups compared to control groups at post-thaw stage of both categories. Moreover, the lowest decline in antioxidant capacity from pre-freeze to post-thaw was estimated in the treatment group of good category and the highest decline found in the control group of poor ejaculate category. No statistical diflcrence in ROS production was observed between the control and the treatment groups at all stages of both ejaculate categories. The level of bacterial contamination was significantly lower in treatment group than in control at post thaw in good ejaculates category. Consequently, addition of Oxyrasc in dilutor significantly increases frcczability of Sahiwal bull spermatozoa by improving post-thaw motility, acrosome integrity, TAC and reducing cholesterol efflux, LPO and bacterial load in good ejaculates, furthermore, addition of Oxyrasc in poor ejaculates reduces cholesterol efflux and increase TAC but do not improve the frcczability to a significant level. Therefore, reduced dissolved oxygen in dilutor before cryopreservation improves post thaw semen quality parameters and may have the potential to overcome freeze-thaw damages due to excess reactive oxygen species.
Microbiological quality assessment of formulated infant flour meals available in local shops in Morogoro municipality
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Mwakasonda, Abel
This study was conducted to assess the microbiological quality of formulated infant flour meals sold in local shops in Morogoro Municipality. A total of 105 infant flour bags from 16 different shops were collected and assessed. All the infant flour meals collected in this cross-sectional study were cereal based for which case the raw materials were obtained locally. The main raw material used as observed on the labels of the packages were rice, maize, soybean, groundnuts, finger millet, sorghum, wheat, carrot, vegetable and fish. The samples were analysed for total plate count (TPC), for Escherichia coli and fungal (moulds) contaminants using enumeration methods. Results of all sampled infant flour meals were in the range of (3.43 ± 0.71) xl04cfu/g to (4.09 ± 1.77) xlO5 cfu/g for total plate count, 0 to 71.22 ±58.13 MPN/g for Escherichia coli and (2.32 ± 0.60) xl03cfu/g to (8.01 ± 1.10) xl04cfu/g for moulds. Microscopic observation for moulds indicated the presence of Aspergillus spp., Cladosporiuni spp. and Penicillium spp. The findings of this study indicate a huge load of microorganisms as observed in the total plate count which is above the required range of the Tanzanian standard for processed cereal based weaning foods (TZS 180, 1983) for all flour meals. After statistical analysis using Open Epi (ANOVA) program, it was revealed that there is a significant difference (p<0.05) in microbiological quality between brands of infant flour meals. The findings from this study pose an alarm to the responsible authorities dealing with food quality issues bearing in mind that infants are at high risk of getting health problems associated with consumption of the infant meals. There is thus a need for responsible government institutions to strengthen efforts of safe food production from farm to final stage of consumption and initiate sustainable intervention measures to improve the microbiological qualities of formulated infant flour meals that will comply with set standards.
Typing and characterization of foot-and-mouth disease virus detected in northern part of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Mokgele, Kelebogile Portia Oratile
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is the most economically important viral disease of livestock globally and has been endemic in Tanzania for many years. It is caused by FMD virus (FMDV). The present study was carried out to identify and differentiate serotypes of the virus from FMD outbreaks in the Northern parts of Tanzania. A total of 35 samples (n = 28 cattle epithelial tissues and n = 7 buffalo probang) were tested by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect viral genome, and 86% of the samples (n = 30) typed by antigen detection ELISA. RT-PCR using serotype specific primers targeting the VP1 region of the FMDV genome detected two serotypes (A, and SAT 2), whereas all four serotypes (A, O, SAT 1 and SAT 2) were detected by antigen detection ELISA (Ag-ELISA). Out of the 35 samples, RT-PCR detected 12 positives (34.3%) and of the 12 positive samples, 5(41.7%) were SAT2 and 4 were serotype A (33.3%), and the other 3(25%) have multiple infections. For Ag-ELISA, 20 out of the 30 samples contained FMDV antigen; 3(15%) were SAT1, 4(20%) SAT2, 2(10%) serotype A, and 1(5%) serotype O. The other 10 had multiple infections. Indeed FMD has been confirmed in Serengeti (SAT2, SAT1, and type A), Simanjiro (SAT1, SAT2, type O and A), Bunda (SAT1, SAT2 and type A) and Same (SAT1, SAT2, type A and O) districts in Northern parts of Tanzania. The findings of this study reveal the existence of at least four serotypes (A, O, SAT1 and SAT 2) in the northern parts of Tanzania. The existence of multiple serotypes and multiple infections complicates control of FMD in the region. Further in-depth studies, including sequencing, are required to clarify the molecular epidemiology of FMDV in the region hence recommendation for appropriate control measures of FMD in Tanzania.
Taxonomic study of trypanosomes from small mammals: bats, rodents and soricids in the oriental region
(Yamaguchi University, 2019) Mafie, Eliakunda
Taxonomy of the genus Trypanosoma Gruby, 1843 (Kinetoplastea: Trypanosomatida: Trypanosomatidae), is at challenging yet, particularly that for trypanosomes classified in the section Stercoraria. Representative are so-called rodent trypanosomes of the subgenus Herpetosoma, i.e. Trypanosoma lewisi (Kent, 1880) and its relatives, and trypanosomes of the subgenus Schizotrypanum, such as Trypanosoma crnzi Chagas, 1909 and its relatives. For a long time, morphological differentiation of stercorarian trypanosomes depended considerably upon our assumption of their rigid host-specificity, but molecular approaches introduced widely in the taxonomical study in the last two decades have demonstrated that this taxonomy is subjective enough. In the present study, I have approached taxonomically trypanosomes in small mammals such as rodents, soricids and bats, clarifying localization of taxonomic problems related to them. In Chapter I, I outlined briefly records of atypical human trypanosomiasis caused by T. lewisi and T. evansi as an opportunistic infection, and updated the current status of molecular approaches to T. lewisi or T. lewisi-WYs trypanosomes in rodents based mainly on the ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) and glycosomal glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH) gene. A limited number of deposited nucleotide sequences of nominal rodent trypanosome species, eight out of ca. 50 species, at the databases made reliable diagnosis and specific taxonomy of T. lewisi-WYs trypanosomes difficult. In addition, some nominal species such as T. lewisi, T. musculi and T. blanchardi have an almost identical rDNA sequences with few nucleotide substitutions, while T. grosi showes substantial intraspecific genetic variations even more than interspecific genetic variations of the aforementioned Herpetosoma trypanosomes. In Chapter II, I collected blood samples of 89 murid rodents of 15 species and 11 soricids of four species in Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Taiwan, and mainland China with help of colleagues, and characterized trypanosomes based on morphology and nucleotide sequences of the rDNA and gGAPDH gene. T. lewisi and T. lewisi-V\k& trypanosomes were found in the blood smears of 10 murids, which included Bandicota indica (two rats), Rattus argentiventer (one rat), and Rattus tiomanicus (two rats) in Indonesia; Rattus rattus (one rat) in the Philippines; and Niviventer confucianus (four rats) in mainland China. Furthermore, large- or medium-sized non-T. /ewzsz-like trypanosomes were detected in two soricids, Crocidura dracula in Vietnam and Anourosorexyamashinai in Taiwan, respectively. At last, 1 erected three new species, i.e. T. niviventerae n. sp., T. sapaensis n. sp., and T. anourosoricis n. sp. for isolates from N. confucianus in mainland China, C. dracula in Vietnam and .4. yamashinai in Taiwan, respectively. In chapter III, I characterized trypanosomes in the blood samples of bats (Miniopterus fu/iginosus') from Japan, and reported for the first time the distribution of T. dionisii Bettencourt et Franpa, 1905 of the T. cruzi clade in Asia. Our genetic characterization of the Asian isolate had biogeographical significance in discussion of the speciation and dispersion of bat-infecting trypanosomes and zoonotic T. cruzi endemic in the Latin America. We are still a long way from understanding the real biodiversity of trypanosomes in the Stercoraria section. I believe, however, our effort to collect and characterise more isolates not only by morphology but also genetically of trypanosomes in small mammals such as rodents, soricids and bats may unveil their real ‘species’ in science.
Food safety risk assessment of thermophilic campylobacter in beef in Arusha municipality, Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Mahundi, Edgar Angelus
Campylobacter is one of the most important pathogen which cause food borne illnesses in the world. A study on risk assessment of thermophilic Campylobacter of beef in Arusha municipality. Tanzania was carried out from January to March 2010. A total of 138 consumers. 35 meat sellers and 25 meat vendors were interviewed on beef purchasing preference, safety during cooking and hygienic practices during consumption. One hundred and sixty swab samples were collected from beef carcasses in butchershops (n=73). roast beef (Nyamachoma in Kiswahili) (n=45) and skewer beef (mishikaki) selling points (n=42) located in beer bars. All the swab samples were used for isolation of thermophilic Campylobacter. The number of customers per hour was recorded in nine nyamachoma and nine mishikaki centres for seven consecutive days. Data were subjected to a Monte Carlo simulation to determine the likelihood of consuming ready-to-eat beef contaminated with thermophilic Campylobacter. There was a contamination rate with thermophilic Campylobacter of 24%. The probabilities of consuming contaminated meat with thermophilic Campylobacter at nyamachoma pubs were 15.5% and at mishikaki shops was 34.7%. The total amount of beef sold at nyamachoma pubs in Arusha municipality per day was 3. 595 kg (90% CI: 1. 745-6, 173) and that sold as mishikaki per day was 165 kg (90% CI: 57-328). The exposure rate per person in nyamachoma. was 0.16% while that in mishikaki was 0.017%. Interview result revealed that poor knowledge on campylobacteriosis and lack of training on food hygiene contributes to poor food safety. However, the control measure practiced by food handlers was to wash hands with soap and water in order to prevent food contamination. At homestead food was covered after cooking and consumers ate food while was still hot. Cross-contamination events were observed in the kitchen whereby knives, utensils, hands of the personnel could probably contribute to contamination with Campylobacter. However, public education programmes and consumer awareness on general food hygiene are recommended to reduce potential health risks to the public.
Preconception health services availability, awareness and attitudes among women of reproductive age in Morogoro, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Mkwama, Edwin Cyprian
A study was carried out to determine Preconception Health Services (PCHS) availability, awareness and attitudes among women of reproductive age in Morogoro. The cross- sectional design was applied using concurrent mixed method whereby quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to collect data. Quantitative data were analysed to get descriptive statistics, test for association using Chi-square and finally logistic regression using Epi info 7 software package was employed to identify determinants of awareness. A total of 470 (91.1%) women participated in the study out of 516 women who were invited. The mean age of women involved into the study was 31.5 years which ranged from 18 to 49 years. The predominant PCHS component routinely practiced with guidelines in place was family planning services. Other components were offered as needed. The study revealed that 75% of women who were involved into study were informed about PCHS. Age, marital status, education level and parity were found to be associated with PCHS awareness among women of reproductive age using logistic regression. The study further showed that all women had an index score greater than 0.5 with a mean score of 0.91 meaning that all women had a positive attitude towards PCHS. It is concluded that the PCHS in Tanzania are not routinely provided with the exception of family planning services. There were gaps in knowledge even in the highly motivated population of women who were planning to get pregnant and all women involved in the study had positive attitudes towards PCHS. The author recommends that the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare should provide comprehensive guidelines for PCHS services. Furthermore larger population-based studies are needed to assess knowledge and attitude in the general population with regard to PCHS, so that appropriate health promotion and education programs can be implemented.
Determination of genetic diversity and paternity analysis of elephants in Tarangire National park using genomic dna microsatellites
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2003) Ishengoma, Deusdedith Rwegasira Simon
A study was conducted on elephants of Tarangire National Park (TNP) in Tanzania with the aim of determining their genetic diversity and paternity using elephant specific genomic DNA microsatellite markers. DNA was extracted from faecal samples collected from known elephants in the northern (n=61) and 12 adult males as well as unidentified females from Central (n=8) and Southern (n=6) subpopulations. The faecal samples were preserved either in absolute ethanol or silica prior to DNA extraction. The extracted DNA was PCR-amplified in duplicates using eight highly polymorphic microsatellite markers and PCR products were subsequently analysed on ABI 3100 Genetic Sequencer Analyser and alleles were scored using ABI Prism® GeneScan® analysis software. The obtained data was analysed using CERVUS program. The amplification and genotyping success per locus for both ethanol and silica-preserved samples ranged from 81.40 to 91.90% (n=86). All 8 microsatellite markers were polymorphic with a total of 60 alleles in the sampled population and the mean number of alleles per locus being 7.50. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 3 to 11 while the mean polymorphic information content (PIC) was 66%. The observed heterozygosity varied from 51.90 to 80.90% and the expected heterozygosity per locus ranged from 53.80 to 82.0% while the mean expected heterozygosity for all loci was 70.60%. Test for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) was not significant for all loci. The genotype data enabled assignment of 38% and 83% of offspring (n=29) at 80% confidence level to their fathers using 30% (12/40) and 100% (12/12) simulation, respectively with respect to the proportion of the sampled breeding males within the TNP. Further assessment of mating success among bulls in the Park revealed that 7.50% of all potential breeding bulls were responsible for fathering 31.0% and 52% of all 29 offspring at 30% and 100% simulation, respectively. This study provides for the first time an important genetic database that has wide applications in future studies of African elephants in TNP and other conservation areas in Tanzania. The data obtained will be used to assess the genetic relatedness of elephants residing in the park as well assist in providing an insight on the effects of poaching on the current elephant social structure in TNP. This information will imperatively be useful in the understanding and conserving the endangered African elephants in different range states in Africa.
Microbial quality of irrigation water and vegetables grown in Kibaha township, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Haule, Akwinatha Marcus
Vegetables are important integral part of the human diet. Although fresh vegetables provide good health, they also harbour a wide range of microbial pathogens. The purpose of this study was to assess the microbial quality of vegetables and water used for irrigation in Kibaha Township. A total of 60 samples collected from different vegetable types, namely Amaranthus spp, sweet potato leaves and spinach, and 20 water samples from different categories including rivers, drainage, shallow wells, and tape water were collected. These samples were cultured in Nutrient and MacConkey agars and analysed for total viable count (TVC), total coliform count (TCC) and total faecal count (TFC) using pour plate count technique (PPCT). In fresh vegetables the mean values ranged from 6.53 to 6.78 logio CFU g’1 for TVC, 5.30 to 5.81 logio CFU g' for TCC and 4.45 to 5.13 logio CFU g'1 for TFC. In water samples the mean values were 5.75 logio CFU ml '* for TVC, 4.90 logio CFU ml'1 for TCC and 4.5 logio CFU ml'1 for TFC. Vegetable samples yielded significant higher (P<0.05) TVC, TCC and TFC than water samples collected from different locations in the study area. In addition river water samples had higher TVC, TCC and TFC than any other water type in Kibaha Township. Findings from this study indicate that water and vegetables from Kibaha Township are highly contaminated by microbial pathogens and that consumers are at high risk to acquire food bome related diseases. There is need for behavioural change with regards to food preparation and consumption in order to reduce the risky. WHO intervene to reduce health risky from uses of water with low quality is recommended.
Evaluation of multiplex pcr for detection of mycobacteria tuberculosis complex microorganisms isolated from cattle tissues and human tuberculosis cases Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2010) Gabriel, Harrison Sadiki
A study on the evaluation of multiplex PCR on detection on Mycobacteria tuberculosis complex was carried on samples obtained from Morogoro district. Specimen collected from abattoir in Morogoro Municipal and human cases from Muhimbili Research Station were analysed at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Laboratory by Multiplex PCR. A total of eight nine-pooled lymph nodes samples collected from none tuberculin tested slaughter cattle in the study area-Morogoro abattoir were cultured and Seventy two (80.89%) yielded mycobacteria. Seventeen were identified as M.bovis and three as M.tuberculosis. The remaining fifty two were mycobacteria other than tuberculosis (MOTTs). A total of forty five isolates from human sample were submitted for subculture and thirty eight (84%) were positive for mycobacteria. Twenty five isolated were identified as M.tuberculosis. The remaining thirteen were mycobacteria other than tuberculosis. The IS986 and mtp40 multiplex PCR was able to differentiate M.bovis from M.tuberculosis. The finding of this therefore necessitates the collaboration of veterinary and medical professions to the control transmission of M.bovis infection in human and animal populations.
Effectiveness of community based health education intervention on the control of human taenia solium taeniasis / cysticercosis in Kongwa and Songwe Districts, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Makingi George Isdory
Taenia solium taeniasis/cysticercosis are neglected tropical diseases and infections transmitted between humans and pigs, causing economic and public health impact in affected communities. The diseases and infections have received great attention in recent years and now are included in the global agenda of neglected tropical diseases. However, little efforts are in place for the control in sub- Saharan Africa (SSH), a highly endemic region. Tanzania is among the SSH countries where the diseases and infections are endemic especially in districts that keep high number of pigs. Control measures recommended to combat these diseases and infections include improvements in hygiene, sanitation and pig management, mass taeniacidal chemotherapy and health education. Health education is the cornerstone of health promotion and has been defined as the lifelong process by which individuals acquire knowledge, attitudes and behaviour that promote health and foster wise decisions for solving personal, family and community health problems. However, there are limited studies to evaluate community- based health education interventions in endemic areas of the country. The current study on community health education on T. solium taeniasis / cysticercosis was conducted between July 2019 and December 2021 in Kongwa and Songwe Districts, Tanzania. The general aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a developed community based health education intervention to increase community knowledge, improve preventive measures and reduce incidences of human T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis in the study area. To achieve this, all villages from Kongwa and Songwe Districts were assessed for their eligibility to participate in the study targeting on selecting 42 villages and estimated sample size of 872 people. Randomized controlled trial design was used, where villages were randomly assigned into two groups, 21villages as control group and other 21 villages as intervention group. The study was conducted in three key phases, including the baseline phase whereby the baseline data were assessed, health education intervention phase whereby the education intervention was performed and the post intervention phase whereby the education intervention was assessed for its effectiveness. The study recruited the same participants in all the three phases. At baseline phase which was conducted between June and September in 2019, a questionnaire survey was conducted in both village groups to assess community knowledge and practices associated with transmission of human T. solium infections. In each village, 20 to 25 households were randomly selected to participate, and in each household, one person was randomly selected to represent the household. The respondent was consented, interviewed and sampled 5 mls of blood from the cephalic or median cubital vein (median basilic vein) by a medical laboratory technician for T. solium cysticercosis detection. The sera were examined for presence of excretory secretory circulating antigens of the metacestode of T. solium using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA) and Western blot IgG kit (WB-IgG), which is an immunological method for detection of exposure to T. solium. During the second phase which was conducted between July and August 2020, community based health education intervention trial was implemented using the health education package. The health education was implemented by first training livestock/agricultural extension officers, school teachers, health workers and village leaders to serve as local trainers for knowledge sustainability purpose. Subsequently, the local trainers and the researcher trained a total of 440 participants from 21 intervention villages and 432 participants from the 21 control villages were not trained. The third phase was conducted between September and December in 2021 a year after intervention, whereby the questionnaire survey and blood sampling were repeated in selected study households of the 42 selected villages and was planned to use the same respondents of phase one. The purpose was to assess the same factors that were assessed during the baseline phase. However, only 320 respondents were available in the control villages and 342 in the intervention villages. A total of 210 participants were lost during the follow up period that constituted 98 participants from the intervention villages and 112 participants from control villages. At baseline, the knowledge of respondents was analysed using the scoring method whereby a respondent was considered to have high level of knowledge/safety practice or low level of knowledge/safety practice on a particular variable when his/her total responses scores were 6-10 points and 0-5 points, respectively. Also, binary logistic regression model was used to test for associations between categorical variables. The results indicated that, community level of knowledge on human T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis was limited in the study area, whereby a total of 539 (61.8%) participants had low knowledge. Regarding preventive practices, it was found that, a total of 653 (74.9%) participants had low level of practices related to T. solium taeniasis/ cysticercosis transmission. A total of 572 (65.6%) participants had low level of knowledge and preventive practices related to human T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis in the study area. However, it was further revealed that participants from Kongwa District were likely to have higher level of knowledge and preventive practices than those from Songwe District (OR=2.4). Also, participants with at least primary level of education were likely to have higher level of knowledge and preventive practices than those with informal level of education (OR=3.3). Further descriptive analysis and regression analysis were used, whereby at baseline a total of 12 (1.4%) individuals tested positive by Ag-ELISA indicating the presence of circulating antigen of T. solium cysticercosis (active infection). A total of 21 (2.4%) individuals were tested positive by WB- IgG assay indicating the presence of circulating IgG antibodies (exposure to infection). The seropositivity of both tests varied considerably across demographic, behavioural and clinical factors. Further analysis found that, participants who were above 45 years of age were more likely to be infected (OR=6.7) and among this group, 10 (2.8%) and 14 (3.9%) individuals were detected by Ag-ELISA and WB-IgG assay, respectively. The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated by comparing changes in knowledge, preventive practices related to human T. solium transmission and cumulative incidence of human T. solium cysticercosis between intervention and control villages using Sharpiro-Wilk test, T-test and Wilcoxon test. In addition, the cumulative incidences of HCC were compared between the intervention and control groups taking into account that all detected cases at the baseline were subjected to further clinical management and were not included in the third phase of the study. At baseline, the study revealed no significant difference in knowledge and practices mean scores between the control and intervention villages (1.45 ±0.94 vs 1.54±1.02, p= 0.24). In addition, no significant difference was observed in the prevalence of human T. solium cysticercosis between intervention and the control villages (1.4% vs.1.4%, p = 0.97) by Ag-ELISA. At one year post intervention, the study revealed a significantly higher knowledge mean scores in the intervention villages compared to the control villages (2.06 ±1.45 vs 0.94 ±1.18, p < 0.001). However, there was no significant difference in the mean practice scores and cumulative incidences of human T. solium cysticercosis at the intervention compared to the control villages. A lack of improved preventive practices might be attributed by limited time to evaluate the effect and the observed insufficient supply of safe and clean water. This study reveals that the community based health education intervention is effective in increasing knowledge on control of human T. solium infections. However, improvement in preventive practices and reduction in incidences of human T. solium cysticercosis are a gradual process, they may require sanitary and hygienic improvement and more time after the intervention to see the desired effect. Therefore, the study recommends implementation of this community based health education intervention to the general public for broader and permanent effect.
Digital health education on epidemiology of taenia solium cysticercosis in Iringa-Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Kajuna, Flora Francis
Taenia solium cysticercosis (TSC) is a parasitic disease caused by larvae of the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium. It is common in low- and middle-income countries. The disease is transmitted through ingestion of food or water contaminated with the tapeworm's eggs or through direct contact with contaminated objects or the worm infected individuals. One effective approach to raise community awareness about the disease is digital health education, the technology disseminates health information and services to a wider audience. Digital health technology provides an opportunity for communities to engage with physicians for consultation, access medical care, follow-up on treatments, and report health emergencies. In Tanzania, digital health education suggested the strategy for endemic T. solium cysticercosis (TSC) control. The disease cause human disabilities even death, also it affects pig industry by causing unsafe and unwholesome pork. The digital health education technology can potentially improve socio-cultural settings and lifestyles influencing TSC epidemiology in endemic communities. However, utilization of digital health in Tanzania is inconsistent. This study aimed at assessing the impact of digital health education intervention on porcine cysticercosis prevalence and on associated household factors in endemic rural communities for management decisions. A baseline cross-sectional study was carried at Izazi, Migoli, and Mlowa wards of Iringa District Council, in April-May, 2018, to evaluate the practices promoting porcine cysticercosis transmission. The survey was a quasi-controlled field trial with pre- and post- intervention assessments for porcine cysticercosis and the associated household practices. The focus was on socio-cultural practices and lifestyles related to the life cycle of T. solium, such as household pig management, sanitation and hygiene practices, pork preparation and consumption. Upon visits, respondents provided information guided with questionnaire, observational checklist used for observation study. Pigs were bleed for Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) analysis to detect the parasite antigen glycoprotein that indicated T. solium cysticercosis prevalence. Immediately after the baseline study, digital health intervention conducted at Migoli and Izazi wards. A door-to-door video show of animations on T. solium cysticercosis and taeniosis educational messages presented using tablets. The tablets were then left in the intended ward offices for voluntary learning. Furthermore, free internet access was provided in designated offices for unsupervised community access to online health education using smartphones or tablets. Post-intervention assessment was then conducted 25 months after commencement of the intervention study in July, 2021. The intervention effect was analysed based on the post-intervention and the baseline data collected with the same procedures described earlier. Digital health technology adoption in health information, health learning, and managing health issues, was also investigated as a cross-sectional study involving 78 public service health offices in the 26 regions of Tanzania's mainland. The survey involved a face-to-face visit and through questionnaire. In places researchers couldn't afford to visit, an electronic questionnaire was distributed via email. The gathered information concerned the experience and the use of digital technologies in health services. The survey showed 33 (37.9%) households had latrines without restrictions to entrance and with limited water supply for handwashing, 42 (57.5%) pigpens didn‟t maintain pigs indoors, and 52 (15%) households allowed pigs to roam freely. Averagely, 22.3 ± 3.44% pigs were tested positive for porcine cysticercosis, and 53.4% households surveyed had at least one seropositive pig. Porcine cysticercosis was significantly associated with free-roaming pigs (OR=2.426; p≤0.05) and poor-quality pens (OR=1.75; p≤0.05). The digital health intervention significantly increased pig confinement (p=0.026) and improved the quality of pigpens (p=0.025), but it didn‟t improve the quality of household latrines (p=0.453) nor the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis (p=0.231). The survey also found Tanzanians (n=191, 91.0%) were preferring digital mobile and internet-enabled tools for personal and official health services. The adoption of digital health services was determined by the availability (n=137, 65.2%), accessibility (n=75, 35.7%), internet connection (n=196, 93.3%), affordability (n=198, 94.3%), and interest of using social media (n=189, 90.0%). Digital health services use was associated with individual's primary occupation (p=0.002, 95% CI), availability of digital health materials (p=0.001, 95% CI), affordability of internet use (p=0.006, 95% CI), and preference of internet, short message system (SMS), and phone calls on health information search (p=0.020, 95% CI). It was also associated with living in areas having reliable electricity (p=0.049, 95% CI). Persistent seropositive pigs suggest traditional lifestyle promotes T. solium worm life cycle. The latrines without entrance restrictions and with limited water supply for hand-washing after toilet, indicate lack of knowledge about safe and hygiene latrine use, hence neglect of safety. It implies community lacks skills to construct and properly use of good latrines made with locally available materials. Sensitization on proper construction and sanitary use of latrines is required. The free-roaming pigs or kept in poorly constructed pens indicates lack of information on benefits of raising pigs under total confinement. Training on good pig management practices is crucial to improve the situation. The practices in the studied community perpetuate Taenia solium life cycle and risk them to infection. Unrestricted entrances latrines, limited water for hand-washing, free-roaming scavenging pigs, and/or pigs escape from confinement poses for TSC infection. Pigs are coprophagous, they become exposed to T. solium eggs by eating feces of human tapeworm carriers who contaminate land with T. solium eggs. The uncomfortable constructed latrines prompt people to less or not use them, resulting defecation in bushes that favor T. solium eggs dispersal. The digital health education was effective in improving pig confinement (p=0.026) and quality pigpens, as pigs were kept indoors during post-intervention study visits. Therefore, digital health intervention is recommended among important strategies in disseminating knowledge aimed at T. solium and other related diseases control in wider communities. Remote communities in mainland Tanzania hardly practice digital health services due to electricity, network, and internet constraints. Marginalized communities can‟t afford costs associated with the necessary hardware and internet access. Therefore, digital health applicability in such communities requires public and private sector partnership. In Tanzania, digital health services are preferred for learning and addressing health problems; however, availability, accessibility, affordability, and internet connection hinder. Thus, socio-cultural practices surveillance and sustainable health education are mandatory when planning for TSC control.
Effects of neem (Azadirachta Indica) leaf powder on intestinal hstomorphology and growth performance in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Mitao, Wilbert Gaudence
The application of leaves from neem tree (Azadirachta indica) as dietary feed additive in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fish is gaining attention worldwide due to its effectiveness and minimal side effects on the aquatic environment. As a phytomedicine has been included in juvenile Nile tilapia diets at inclusion levels of 2–8 g/kg feed to control reproduction, by exerting degenerative histological changes on gonadal tissues of Nile tilapia fish. However, a slow growth rate and lowered feed utilization were reported in juvenile Nile tilapia post-exposure to neem compounded feeds. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of neem leaf powder (NLP) on intestinal histomorphology in tilapia fish and its association with growth performance. A total of 180 Nile tilapia fingerlings were randomly distributed in four groups (n = 30 for growth performance, n = 15 for intestinal histomorphology) and kept in a clear-water recirculation aquaculture system (RAS). A total of 45 fingerlings used in control groups, while 135 used in treated groups. The fish received NLP at concentrations of 0 g, 1 g, 4 g, and 8 g for each kilogram of Nile tilapia commercial feed and the experiment was conducted for 90 days. Results showed that the inclusion of NLP at 4 g/Kg feed significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced weight gain (WG), percent weight gain (PWG), daily weight gain (DWG), and specific growth rate (SGR) in comparison to treated groups given NLP 1 g and 8 g/kg feed and the control group. A higher survival rate (P < 0.05) was recorded in the group fed NLP at 8 g/Kg feed. Values for intestinal histomorphometry (villous height) in the middle/spiral intestine in the group fed 8 g/Kg feed were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than in the control group. Moreover, compared to the control group, the treated group on early exposure to NLP (Days 0–3) had increased TNF-α and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) expression. The TNF-α was associated with significant (p < 0.05) increased expression of TNF-α in all portions of the intestines and pancreatic regions compared. This was reflected by the inflammatory effect in the proximal, middle, and distal intestines. But on long-term exposure (Day 30–90), all treated groups and all three intestinal portions experienced epithelial recovery associated with decreased expression of TNF-α and ssDNA. In conclusion, there was an adaptation in long-term exposure to the used NLP doses on Nile tilapia fingerlings, and the inclusion from one up to 4 g of NLP per Kg feed has no detrimental effect on intestinal morphology and promotes growth and feed utilization.
Efficacy of commonly used anthelmintics in selected sheep farms in Arusha
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2006) Chang’a, Jelly Senyagwa
Morphological study of the ileal Peyer’s patches of mammals
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2001) Antallo,Hando Hussein
Ileal Peyer’s patches of some mammals such as sheep and goats have similar morphological characteristics to the avian bursa of Fabricius. The objective of this study was therefore to obtain more data on the morphological properties and life history of ileal Peyer’s patches in a wider range of mammalian species. Thus, gross and histologic methods were used to evaluate the morphological changes in the ileal Peyer’s patches during fetal, youth and adult periods in wildebeests, reedbucks, cattle, donkeys, pigs, dogs, cats, wild rats, giant rats, baboons and vervet monkeys. In each age group three animals were used. Grossly, no Peyer’s patches were visible in duodenum, jejunum and ileum of fetuses except donkey fetuses, which had 29 ileal Peyer’s patches and 40 jejunal Peyer’s patches. However, microscopic evaluation of fetal ileal samples from fetuses of all mentioned species except rats at about mid gestation, showed accumulation of lymphoid cells in the sub-mucosa. During late fetal period, cattle and donkey fetuses had conical follicles while dogs had round follicles. In addition, bovine fetus ileal Peyer’s patch follicles showed distinct cortico-medulla differentiation. Young wildebeests, reedbucks, cattle, pigs, dogs and cats had long continuous band ofileal Peyer’s patch that covered the ileum and extended into the jejunum. Donkeys, baboons and vervet monkeys possessed 32, 1, 3 oval shaped individual ileal Peyer’s patches respectively, while rats had nopatches. Young wildebeests, reedbucks, cattle, cats, baboons and vervet monkeys possessed oval shaped jejunal Peyer’s patches numbering 32, 10, 26, 3, 12 and 18, respectively. Foals and puppies had round jejunal Peyer’s patches that numbered 48 and 8, respectively. No jejunal Peyer’s patches were seen in piglets and rats. Duodenal Peyer’s patches were only seen in puppies. Microscopically, ileal Peyer’s iii patch showed follicles that were sac-like, tightly packed, with clear cortico-medulla differentiation and small domes, corona and interfollicular areas. The adults of wildebeest, rcedbuck, cattle, pig, donkey, dog and cat had no grossly visible ileal Peyer’s patches. However, microscopically, sub-mucosa was filled with connective tissue. Nevertheless, wild rats had 2 and giant rats had 8 small round ileal Peyer’s patches that contained pear-shaped follicles, wider domes, conspicuous corona and large interfollicular areas. All animals under study possessed jejunal Peyer’s patches, which were bigger than those of respective youths and their numbers averaged 55 in wildebeest, 15 in rcedbuck, 37 in cattle, 8 in pig, 57 in donkey, 9 in dog, 6 in cat, 3 in wild rat and 17 in giant rat. Again, 3 duodenal Peyer’s patches were seen in dogs. Adults of non-human primates were not obtained. The study has therefore demonstrated presence of a continuous long ileal Peyer’s patches in young animals in orders; Artiodactyla and Carnivora while young animals of the order Perissodactyla had discrete round patches. At least, the study has also demonstrated a prenatal maturation of the ileal Peyer’s patches in the mammalian ordersArtiodactyla, Perissodactyla and Carnivora which is followed by full maturation at young age and lastly by involution at adulthood except in rats. This morphological pattern resembles that of avian bursa of Fabricius.
Prevalence of enterohaemorrhagic escherichia coli (ehec) o157:h7 in cattle meat (beef) in Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2002) Hayghaimo,Abdu Amman
A cross sectional study on the occurrence of EHEC O157:H7 serotype in cattle meat (beef) destined for human consumption was undertaken in two slaughterhouses of Tanzania between December 2000 and June 2001. Surface swabs were taken from 384 beef carcasses immediately after slaughter and were examined for EHEC O157:H7 by first growth enrichment in modified tryptone soya broth (mTSB), followed by immunomagnetic separation (IMS) and finally by culture of bead- 0157 media. Presumptive EHEC O157:H7 were isolated from 25 of 200 (12.5%) beef samples collected from Morogoro slaughterhouse and 21 of 184 (11.4%) beef samples collected from Ukonga- Mombasa slaughterhouse in Dar-es-Salaam. When the presumptive EHEC O157:H7 colonies were subjected to the latex agglutination and biochemical tests for confirmation, 22 (5.7%) isolates showed typical agglutination and biochemical patterns characteristic of EHEC O157:H7. This study suggests that beef in the two slaughterhouses may be contaminated with EHEC O157:H7. Given the hygienic conditions of most slaughterhouses in Tanzania, it can be concluded that beef from slaughterhouses if not properly cooked may present a risk of VTEC 0157 infections and associated disease to humans. This is the first report on the isolation of EHEC O157:H7 in cattle meat in Tanzania.
Immunohistochemical characterization and quantification of lymphocytes infiltrating lungs during east coast fever.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2002) Kessy,Vallery Msafiri John
A study was conducted to investigate the hypothesis that the lungs in East Coast fever are infiltrated by different subsets of lymphocytes that may be responsible in the pathogenesis of pulmonary edema. Four steers 7-10 months old were experimentally infected by subcutaneous injection with 0.5 ml of live Theileria parva sporozoites (Muguga stabilate 3087). Two others remained as uninfected controls. All six animals were clinically monitored daily before and after infection by screening peripheral blood smears, lymph node smears, rectal temperatures, lymph node enlargement, coughing and dyspnea. Also blood samples were taken at intervals of 3-4 days and analysed for total RBC and WBC counts, Hb, PCV and exsanguinated to death under general anaesthesia at the onset of dyspnea, together with one of the controls for sampling of lung tissues. In addition, two lung tissue samples were collected from two ECF naturally infected cattie that were slaughtered during the advanced stage of the disease. The lung tissue samples from the experimentally and naturally infected animals were fixed in 4% neutralbuffered formaldehyde (pH 7.4) for 48 hours and subjected to routine tissue processing procedures to obtain 4 gm thin sections that were stained routinely by H & E for histopathological examination and immunohistochemically by monoclonal antibodies labelled by streptavidin-biotin peroxidase complex to visualize lymphocyte subsets BoCD21+, BoCD4+, BoCD8+ and BoWCl+. Rectal temperatures differential leukocyte count. Each of the infected animal was humanely started to increase above normal by day 8 post infection while ECF was confirmed by lymph node smear examination by day 7 and dyspnea by day 15 post infection. It was demonstrated that the majority of lymphocyte subsets infiltrating the lungs of cattle infected with Theileria parva are BoCD4+ and BoCD8+ in the acute and advanced stages of ECF, respectively. The BoCD8+ T cells were about eleven times more than the rest of the other subsets in the naturally infected animals slaughtered in the advanced stages of ECF. The apparent higher mean number of both BoCD21+ and BoWCl+ during midway of the course of infection suggests that these may have more roles to play in this stage than in the advanced stages of Theileria parva infection. Notwithstanding the mechanisms that attract these lymphocytes into the lungs, their presence indicates that they likely bring about local release of cytokines that contribute towards development of inflammation and pulmonary edema. It was concluded that any endeavour to develop ways to treat Theileria parva infection should study the specific cytokines released during ECF
Incidence and management practices of bacterial meningitis in children in Morogoro regional referral hospital
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Chambuso, Ramadhani
The analysis and evaluation of meningitis situation in Morogoro Region was done by looking at the incidence and management practices of meningitis in children at the Morogoro Regional Referral Hospital (MRRF) for a period of 7 months. A total of 1352 children aged between 7 days and 12 years were admitted at MRRH, of these 72 (5.3%) had meningitis symptoms during the period. Lumbar puncture was done on the 72 children with meningitis symptoms to collect CSF for observation and laboratory analysis. Of the examined CSF samples, 23 (31.9%) were positive for Streptococcus pneumoniae, 6 (8.3%) for Haemophilus influenzae, 5 (6.9%) for Group B Streptococcus, 3 (4.2 %) for Echerichia coli and one (1.4%) was AFB positive on Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) stain. Thirty nine percent (n=72) of the samples showed no bacterial growth in the culture media. Latex agglutination test was used to confirm the bacterial colonies. The incidence of meningitis infection was 5.3% (n=1352) among the admitted patients. Intravenous administration of Ceftriaxone at 80mg/kg body weight was given once a day for 10 days to all the 72 children with symptoms of meningitis. Of the 72 treated children, 32 (44.4%) responded well to the treatment of whom 19 (26.4%) fully recovered, while 13 (18.1%) recovered but with neurological defects. Nevertheless, 39 (54.2%) of the treated children did not respond to the therapy whereas 31 (43.1%) of them died while 8 (11.1%) were referred to the Muhimbili National Referral Hospital. Only one case of Tuberculosis (TB) Meningitis was recorded which responded well to TB medication of rifampicin, isoniazid and pyrazinamide in a combination. This study has shown that Streptococcus pneumoniae was the major bacteria associated with meningitis in children admitted at the MRRH.
Immune response to new plasmodium falciparum liver stage antigens in children naturally exposed to malaria
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2009) Mkindi, Catherine Gerald
Interferon gamma (IFN-y) responses to Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) class 1 restricted peptide antigens have been shown to be protective against malaria in different populations where malaria is endemic. The present study examined whether newly discovered liver stage Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) protein antigens, which were matched to different HLA class 1 alleles predicted to be expressed by Tanzanians, can stimulate T cells with subsequent production of IFN-y. A crossectional study from an ongoing cohort of children between the age of 0-5 years in malaria endemic area of Morogoro municipality, Tanzania, was undertaken to test IFN-y responses to the new liver stage antigens. To examine whether the these liver stage peptides stimulated T cell proliferation and IFN-y production, an enzyme linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay was used, and results were compared to parasitological and haematological parameters of the children investigated. HLA B15 predicted specific responses were most frequent 63.6%, (21/33) when compared to responses to peptides predicted to be restricted by other HLA class 1 alleles such as HLA B35 22% (4/18) and HLA A02 15.2% (7/49) (P<0.05) by a chi square test. Children below 6 months were found to respond to the peptide antigens less frequently (7.2%, 5/70) than children above 6 months (92.8%, 65/70) (P=0.0001). Moreover, responding children above 6 months (78.8%, 26/33) were found to be protected from malaria parasitemia within two months follow up period, P=0.0003. This study confirms the presence of adaptive cell-mediated immunity to the liver stage malaria antigens in children from Tanzania and demonstrates that alleles of the HLA-B15 can effectively present antigenic epitopes. These antigens therefore provide suitable candidates for inclusion into the pool of pre-erythrocytic antigens for malaria vaccine candidates.
Investigation of oxytetracycline use and abuse: determination of its residues in meat consumed in Dodoma and Morogoro municipalities
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2004) Mmbando, Louis Mshakale Gregory
In spile of oxytetracycline (OTC) being a widely used drug in livestock production in Tanzania for many years, there is no published information on its use and occurrence of its residues in the meat consumed in the country. This study was aimed at establishing the mode of OTC use, the occurrence and levels of its residues in the meat consumed in Dodoma and Morogoro regions. The mode of OTC use was studied by the administration of a questionnaire to respondents in some of the slaughter cattle catchment areas. The residue occurrence levels were accomplished by analysis of 131 muscle, liver and kidney samples by using the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. OTC sample extraction was done using a pH 4.0 Mcllavaine-EDTA buffer and cleanup by application on Supelclean LC-18 solid phase extraction (S.P.E.) cartridges. OTC quantification was done by using an ATIUNICAM H.P.L.C. system with an electron capture UV detector set at 350nm. The separation of OTCs was carried out by an RP 8-10 Lichrosorb (4.6 mmd x 25cm) column and a Methanol: Acetonitrile: O.OlMaq. Oxalic Acid mobile phase in the ratio 1:2:7 V/V/V, respectively. The study established a high degree of OTC abuse of use especially by the livestock keepers through overdosing by as much as 10-20 times the recommended therapeutic doses, use of wrong routes of administration, arbitrary drug combinations and non-observance of the OTC withdrawal period. Out of the 131 beef samples analysed, 54 (41.2%) had detectable OTC residues. Furthermore 41 (31.3%) samples had violative OTC residues levels compared to the FAO/WHO 1999 OTC maximum residue levels (MRLs) of 0.2 mg/kg (muscle), 0.6 mg/kg (liver) and 1.2mg/kg (kidney). Violative OTC residues ranged from 0.52 mg/kg to 8.98mg/kg of tissue. The 31.3% violative samples, coupled with the high mean OTC residue concentrations observed were very significant compared to those of other countries. It is an indication of the seriousness of the OTC abuse problem with its attendant residue occurrence and harmful effects on public health, our international trade of animal products and the environment. Deliberate steps need to be taken by the state to redress the situation before it gets worse.
Effectiveness of health education intervention for controlling porcine cysticercosis in Kongwa and Songwe districts, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Wilson, Christina
Taenia solium taeniasis/cysticercosis (TSTC) is a parasitic zoonotic disease that is endemic in several developing countries in sub- Saharan Africa, Latin America, and East and Southeast Asia. Tanzania is one of the developing countries where the parasite has major negative effects on the economy and public health. Based on previous reports in Tanzania, the disease is widespread in the central region,the northern and southern highland regions. Several studies on disease control have been conducted in Tanzania. Interventions for health education have been conducted with promising results. However, prior health education was characterized by limited community engagement, which could lead to limited sustainability. This study used a health education package (HEP), which was co- created with community participation to ensure knowledge uptake and sustainability for controlling porcine cysticercosis in Kongwa and Songwe Districts in the central and southern highland regions of Tanzania, respectively. Three phases of data collection were used in the study: first, a baseline survey was conducted between June and September 2019 in 42 villages (28 in Kongwa and 14 in Songwe districts), followed by a community health education intervention between October and December 2020 in 21 villages (14 in Kongwa and 7 in Songwe district). The second survey of data collection was conducted one year after a community health education intervention between October and December 2021 in all 42 villages. A cross-sectional study was conducted in a baseline survey to assess farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to the transmission, prevention, and control of PCC and also assess the seroprevalence of porcine cysticercosis (PCC). The survey was administered using a Kobo toolbox. The interview was conducted in the village office, followed by a household survey to evaluate and verify hygiene and sanitary practices. A total of 692 smallholder pig farmers were interviewed. To assess the seroprevalence of PCC, about 5 ml of blood samples were collected from 692 pigs through a jugular vein using a plain vacutainer tube. Later, the sera were harvested, and using a cysticercosis Ag-ELISA kit, the parasite's circulating antigens were detected. The villages were then stratified into three strata based on the comparability of the PCC seroprevalence measured at baseline using Ag-ELISA. The first stratum consisted of 10 villages with zero seroprevalence. The second stratum consisted of 13 villages with a seroprevalence of 4.5% to 9.5%. The third stratum consisted of 19 villages with a seroprevalence of 10.5% to 33.3%. Half of the selected villages in each stratum were randomly assigned to either the intervention or control groups. Twenty-one villages with 361 households were allocated to the intervention (treatment) group, whereas the other 21 villages with 331 households were allocated to the control group. After the baseline study, a community health education intervention trial was administered to the intervention group using leaflets, posters, and booklets. The health education was conducted in two phases. Phase one involved a two-day training of the trainers (ToT), which included village and ward leaders, livestock, and human health professionals. Phase two involved a one-day training of the pig farmers by the selected ToT. A second survey was conducted one year following the community health education intervention using the same data collection instruments as in the baseline survey. The baseline survey showed that 72% (n = 692) of respondents had heard about porcine cysticercosis (PCC), approximately half (42% (n = 692) of the respondents had little knowledge regarding PCC, and only 34% (n = 692) were aware that pigs can acquire PCC by ingesting human faeces with T. solium eggs. Approximately 36% (n = 692) of the respondents could identify cyst-infected pigs. About 72% had a positive attitude toward PCC prevention and control measures. Approximately 64% (n = 692) of the respondents believed that cyst- infected pork should be outlawed. In addition, 59% of respondents (n = 692) thought that using latrines with functional doors might reduce the occurrence of PCC. The majority of smallholder pig farmers (73%) acknowledged consistently deworming their pigs; 85% of respondents admitted to deworming themselves and their family members each year. The two drugs that are frequently used to treat worms in humans and pigs are albendazole and ivermectin, respectively. In addition, 92% of households in the districts had latrines, and around 28% (n = 692) of the pigs were raised in free-range environments. Ag-ELISA results showed that 67 (9.7%) pigs had PCC. In Kongwa and Songwe districts, the seroprevalence was 7.3% and 14.0%, respectively. In addition, the baseline seroprevalence of PCC was 10.2% and 9.1% in the intervention and control groups, respectively. Twelve months after community health education, the differences in difference analysis found that health education increased the knowledge level (β = 1.779, p = 0.004), attitude level (β = 1.024, p =0.038), and practice level (β = 0.719, p = 0.023) over time. In addition, the study found an increase in knowledge of the transmission of porcine cysticercosis by 41.5% (p <0.001) and 11.3% (p = 0.011) in pig farmers in the intervention group and control group, respectively. Further, the study found improvements of 14.5% (p <0.001) and 3.5% (p = 0.034) in farmers’ desire to condemn cysticerci-infected pork in both the intervention and control groups, respectively. Furthermore, the study observed that PCC seroprevalence decreased to 0.5% and 3.9% in the control and intervention villages, respectively, although the decrease was not statistically significant in both groups. The study showed that PCC was still prevalent in the area and that farmers’ knowledge about the disease was poor, and risky practices were present. The community health education intervention using the HEP has improved the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of smallholder pig farmers toward PCC transmission and control; however, the short observation period compromised the power of the study to definitively attribute the reduction of PCC seroprevalence to the interventions. Therefore, the study recommends that, future research to integrate health education interventions with treatment of human taeniosis, which could be an important step to immediately interrupt the lifecycle of T.solium which may have helped to see the larger short-term effects of health education interventions

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