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Item Acceptability of wastewater resource and its impact on crop production in Tanzania: the case of Dodoma, Morogoro and Mvomero wastewater stabilization ponds(2013) Kilobe, B. M; Mdegela, R. H.; Mtambo, M.M.AThe study was carried out to assess the views of urban farmers in relation to acceptability of wastewater resource in agriculture and examine its impact for crop production. A total of 200 respondents were involved in this study. The study found that 90% of the 112 households using wastewater and 85% of the 88 households not using the resource indicated effluents from WSPs as main and reliable source of water for irrigation. Wastewater utilization in agriculture was accepted by 97.3% of farmers using wastewater and 64.8% of farmers not using it and the difference was significant (p<0.01). The study found that on average farmers utilizing wastewater produced 4.5 bags of rice per acre more than farmers not utilizing wastewater and the difference was significant (p<0.05). In conclusion, wastewater utilization in agriculture was accepted by both groups of farmers engaging in agriculture in urban and peri-urban areas and that high crop yield was realized by farmers utilizing wastewater in agriculture . Since some respondents indicated that the resource may have health effects to farmers and consumers of the produce, it is recommended that, more research on microbial analysis be carried out to establish evidence of health effects associated with the use of wastewater in agriculture from infectious agentsItem Alcelaphine herpesvirus-1 (Malignant Catarrhal Fever Virus) in wildebeest placenta: Genetic variation of ORF50 and A9.5 alleles(PLoS ONE, 2015-05-13) Lankester, F.; Lugelo, A.; Mnyambwa, N.; Ndabigaye, A.; Keyyu, J.; Kazwala, R. R.; Grant, D. M.; Relf, V.; Haig, D. M.; Cleaveland, S.; Russell, G. C.Alcelaphine herpesvirus–1 (AlHV-1), a causative agent of malignant catarrhal fever in cattle, was detected in wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) placenta tissue for the first time. Although viral load was low, the finding of viral DNA in over 50%of 94 samples tested lends support to the possibility that placental tissue could play a role in disease transmission and that wildebeest calves are infected in utero. Two viral loci were sequenced to examine variation among virus samples obtained from wildebeest and cattle: the ORF50 gene, encoding the lytic cycle transactivator protein, and the A9.5 gene, encoding a novel polymorphic viral glycoprotein. ORF50 was well conserved with six newly discovered alleles differing at only one or two base positions. In contrast, while only three new A9.5 alleles were discovered, these differed by up to 13% at the nucleotide level and up to 20% at the amino acid level. Structural homology searching performed with the additional A9.5 sequences determined in this study adds power to recent analysis identifying the four-helix bundle cytokine interleukin-4 (IL4) as themajor homologue. The majority of MCF virus samples obtained from Tanzanian cattle and wildebeest encoded A9.5 polypeptides identical to the previously characterized A9.5 allele present in the laboratory maintained AlHV-1 C500 strain. This supports the view that AlHV-1 C500 is suitable for the development of a vaccine for wildebeest-associated MCF.Item Analysis of host genetic factors influencing African trypanosome species infection in a cohort of Tanzanian Bos indicus cattle(Elsevier, 2011) Karimuribo, Esron D; Morrison, Liam J.; Black, Alana; Turner, Michael R.; Kambarage, Dominic M.; Ballingall, Keith T.Trypanosomosis caused by infection with protozoan parasites of the genus Trypanosoma is a major health constraint to cattle production in many African countries. One hundred and seventy one Bos indicus cattle from traditional pastoral Maasai (87) and more intensively managed Boran (84) animals in Tanzania were screened by PCR for the presence of African animal trypanosomes (Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma bru- cei), using blood samples archived on FTA cards. All cattle screened for trypanosomes were also genotyped at the highly polymorphic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II DRB3 locus to investigate possible associations between host MHC and trypanosome infec- tion. Overall, 23.4% of the 171 cattle tested positive for at least one of the three trypanosome species. The prevalence of individual trypanosome species was 8.8% (T. congolense), 4.7% (T. vivax) and 15.8% (T. brucei). The high prevalence of T. brucei compared with T. congolense and T. vivax was unexpected as this species has previously been considered to be of lesser impor- tance in terms of African bovine trypanosomosis. Significantly higher numbers of Maasai cattle were infected with T. brucei (23.0%, p = 0.009) and T. congolense (13.8%, p = 0.019) com- pared with Boran cattle (8.3% and 3.6%, respectively). Analysis of BoLA-DRB3 diversity in this cohort identified extensive allelic diversity. Thirty-three BoLA-DRB3 PCR-RFLP defined alle- les were identified. One allele (DRB3*15) was significantly associated with an increased risk (odds ratio, OR = 2.71, p = 0.034) of T. brucei infection and three alleles (DRB3*35, *16 and *23) were associated with increased risk of T. congolense infection. While further work is required to dissect the role of these alleles in susceptibility to T. brucei and T. congolense infections, this study demonstrates the utility of FTA archived blood samples in combined molecular analyses of both host and pathogen.Item Anthrax outbreaks in the humans - livestock and wildlife interface areas of Northern Tanzania: A retrospective record review 2006–2016(BMC, 2018-02-15) Mwakapeje, E. R.; Høgset, S.; Fyumagwa, R.; Nonga, H. E.; Mdegela, R. H.; Skjerve, E.Background: Anthrax outbreaks in Tanzania have been reported from the human, livestock and wildlife sectors over several years, and is among the notifiable diseases. Despite frequent anthrax outbreaks, there is no comprehensive dataset indicating the magnitude and distribution of the disease in susceptible species. This study is a retrospective review of anthrax outbreaks from the human, livestock, and wildlife surveillance systems from 2006 to 2016. The objectives were to identify hotspot districts, describe anthrax epidemiology in the hotspot areas, evaluate the efficiency of the anthrax response systems and identify potential areas for further observational studies. Methods: We prepared a spreadsheet template for a retrospective comprehensive record review at different surveillance levels in Tanzania. We captured data elements including demographic characteristics of different species, the name of health facility, and date of anthrax diagnosis. Also, we collected data on the date of specimen collection, species screened, type of laboratory test, laboratory results and the outcome recorded at the end of treatment in humans. After establishing the database, we produced maps in Quantum GIS software and transferred cleaned data to Stata software for supportive statistical analysis. Results: Anthrax reported incidences over 4 years in humans were much higher in the Arusha region (7.88/100,000) followed by Kilimanjaro region (6.64/100,000) than other regions of Tanzania Mainland. The health facility based review from hotspot districts in parts of Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions from 2006 to 2016, identified 330 human anthrax cases from the selected health facilities in the two regions. Out of 161 livestock and 57 wildlife specimen tested, 103 and 18 respectively, were positive for anthrax. Conclusion: This study revealed that there is gross under-reporting in the existing surveillance systems which is an obstacle for estimating a true burden of anthrax in the hotspot districts. Repeated occurrences of anthrax in livestock, wildlife and humans in the same locations at the same time calls for the need to strengthen links and promote inter–disciplinary and multi-sectoral collaboration to enhance prevention and control measures under a One Health approach.Item Antimicrobial resistance in human and animal pathogens in Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique and Tanzania(Annals of clinical microbiology and Antimicrobials, 2013-12) Mshana, Stephen E; Matee, Mecky; Rweyemamu, MarkA review of the published and unpublished literature on bacterial resistance in human and animals was performed. Sixty-eight articles/reports from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia were reviewed. The majority of these articles were from Tanzania. There is an increasing trend in the incidence of antibiotic resistance; of major concern is the increase in multidrug- resistant Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholera, non-typhoid Salmonella and other pathogens responsible for nosocomial infections. The increase in methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers in the countries under review confirms the spread of these clones worldwide. Clinical microbiology services in these countries need to be strengthened in order to allow a coordinated surveillance for antimicrobial resistance and provide data for local treatment guidelines and for national policies to control antimicrobial resistance. While the present study does not provide conclusive evidence to associate the increasing trend in antibiotic resistance in humans with the use of antibiotics in animals, either as feed additives or veterinary prescription, we strongly recommend a one-health approach of systematic surveillance across the public and animal health sectors, as well as the adherence to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)-OIE (World Organization of animal Health) –WHO(World Health Organization) recommendations for non-human antimicrobial usage.Item Antimicrobial use and resistance in food- producing animals and the environment: an African perspective(BMC, 2020-05) Kimera, Zuhura I; Mshana, Stephen E; Rweyemamu, Mark M; Mboera, Leonard E. G; Matee, Mecky I. NThe overuse of antimicrobials in food animals and the subsequent contamination of the environment have been associated with development and spread of antimicrobial resistance. This review presents information on antimicrobial use, resistance and status of surveillance systems in food animals and the environment in Africa.Item Antiviral activity of crude extracts of Synadenium glaucescens (Pax) against infectious bursal disease and fowlpox virus(2013-04-10) Mabiki, F. P.; Mdegela, R. H.; Mosha, R. D.; Magadula, J. J.The effect of crude extracts from different morphological parts of Synadenium glaucescens against infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) and fowlpox (FP) virus using an in ovo assay were investigated. Viable 9 days embryonated chicken eggs were challenged with viral strains then treated with S. glaucescens extracts at concentration of 0.2 mg/ml. Un-inoculated group were saved as negative control and groups inoculated with virus and diluent saved as positive controls. The treatments were observed daily and embryo weights were measured 5 days post-inoculation. Embryo survival and mean embryo weight were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.001) in groups treated with S. glaucescens extracts than the positive control. More than 50% of the extract prevented death and deformation of embryo and formation of pock lesions in embryos. Furthermore, the treatments with ethanolic extract of the root bark demonstrated significantly higher mean embryo weight compared to other extract for both viruses (P ≤ 0.001). The mean embryo weights from eggs challenged with infectious bursal disease virus and fowlpox virus treated with the extract were 6.3 ± 2 and 5.9 ± 0.5 g, respectively. These findings demonstrate potential and feasibility of using S. glaucescens extracts for treatment of the viral diseases. Furthermore, it validates the ethnoveterinary exploitation at community level.Item Are we prepared for emerging and re-emerging diseases? Experience and lessons from epidemics that occurred in Tanzania during the last five decades(2011-12) Rweyemamu, Mark M; Mmbuji, Peter; Kivaria, Fredrick M; Simba, Azma; Mbugi, Erasto; Karimuribo, Esron D; Mboera, Leonard E.GThis paper reviews preparedness for containing and controlling emerging and re-emerging diseases drawing lessons from disease events that occurred in animal and human populations in the last five decades (1961-2011). A comprehensive analysis based on retrieval and analysis of grey and published literature as well as reported cases was carried out to document type and trend of occurrence of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases in different parts of Tanzania. Overall, the majority of diseases reported in the country were viral in nature followed by bacterial diseases. The trend for the occurrence shows a number of new emerging diseases as well as re-occurrence of old diseases in both animal (domestic and wild) and human populations. In humans, the major disease epidemics reported in the last five decades include cholera, influenza A H1N1, plague and rubella. In animals, the major epidemic diseases reported were Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia, Peste des petits ruminants and Giraffe Ear and Skin Diseases. Some epidemics have been reported in both human and animal populations including Rift Valley fever and anthrax. The emergence of the ‘fit-for purpose’ approaches and technologies such as the discipline of One Health, use of participatory epidemiology and disease surveillance and mobile technologies offers opportunity for optimal use of limited resources to improve early detection, diagnosis and response to disease events and consequently reduced impact of such diseases in animal and human populations.Item Are we prepared for emerging and re-emerging diseases? experience and lessons from epidemics that occurred in Tanzania during the last five decades(2012-03) Karimuribo, E.D; Mboera, L. E.G; Mbugi, Erasto; Simba, Azma; Kivaria, F. M; Mmbuji, Peter; Rweyemamu, M. Mhis paper reviews preparedness for containing and controlling emerging and re-emerging diseases drawing lessons from disease events that occurred in animal and human populations in the last five decades (1961-2011). A comprehensive analysis based on retrieval and analysis of grey and published literature as well as reported cases was carried out to document type and trend of occurrence of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases in different parts of Tanzania. Overall, the majority of diseases reported in the country were viral in nature followed by bacterial diseases. The trend for the occurrence shows a number of new emerging diseases as well as re-occurrence of old diseases in both animal (domestic and wild) and human populations. In humans, the major disease epidemics reported in the last five decades include cholera, influenza A H1N1, plague and rubella. In animals, the major epidemic diseases reported were Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia, Peste des petits ruminants and Giraffe Ear and Skin Diseases. Some epidemics have been reported in both human and animal populations including Rift Valley fever and anthrax. The emergence of the ‘fit-for purpose’ approaches and technologies such as the discipline of One Health, use of participatory epidemiology and disease surveillance and mobile technologies offers opportunity for optimal use of limited resources to improve early detection, diagnosis and response to disease events and consequently reduced impact of such diseases in animal and human populations. ____________________________Item Assessment of a computer-based Taenia solium health education tool ‘The Vicious Worm’ on knowledge uptake among professionals and their attitudes towards the program2015(Elsevier, 2016) Ertel, Rebekka Lund; Braae, Uffe Christian; Ngowi, Helena Aminiel; Johansen, Maria VangHealth education has been recognised as a specific intervention tool for control of Taenia solium taenio- sis/cysticercosis but evaluation of the efficacy of the tool remains. The aim of our study was to assess the effect of a computer-based T. solium health education tool ‘The Vicious Worm’ on knowledge uptake among professionals and investigate attitudes towards the program. The study was carried out between March and May 2014 in Mbeya Region, Tanzania, where T. solium is endemic. The study was a pre and post assessment of a health education tool based on questionnaire surveys and focus group discussions to investigate knowledge and attitudes. A total of 79 study subjects participated in the study including study subjects from both health- and agriculture sector. The health education consisted of 11⁄2 h indi- vidual practice with the computer program. The baseline questionnaire showed an overall knowledge on aspects of acquisition and transmission of T. solium infections (78%), porcine cysticercosis treatment (77%), human tapeworm in general (72%), neurocysticercosis in general (49%), and porcine cysticerco- sis diagnosis (48%). However, there was a lack of knowledge on acquisition of neurocysticercosis (15%), prevention of T. solium taeniosis/cysticercosis (28%), and relation between porcine cysticercosis, human cysticercosis, and taeniosis (32%). Overall, the study subject’s knowledge was significantly improved both immediately after (p = 0.001) and two weeks after (p < 0.001) the health education and knowledge regard- ing specific aspects was significantly improved in most aspects immediately after and two weeks after the health education. The focus group discussions showed positive attitudes towards the program and the study subjects found ‘The Vicious Worm’ efficient, simple, and appealing. The study revealed a good effect of ‘The Vicious Worm’ suggesting that it could be a useful health education tool, which should be further assessed and thereafter integrated in T. solium taeniosis/cysticercosis control.Item Assessment of antibiotic residues in raw cows’ milk produced by small scale dairy farms in Bagamoyo district, Tanzania(Sokoine University of Agriculture., 2015) Ramadhani, RidhiwaniA cross-sectional study was conducted in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania between October, 2013 and March, 2014 to assess the antibiotic residues in raw cows’ milk produced by small-scale dairy farms. One hundred and ten small-scale dairy farmers were interviewed at household level on the handling and use of veterinary drugs, access to and availability of veterinary services, livestock diseases frequency and means of treatment, most commonly used antibiotic, awareness of drug residues in raw milk and health risks associated with consumption of raw milk containing antibiotic residues. In addition 110raw milk samples were collected from three available milk collection centers for laboratory analysis of antibiotic residues. Laboratory assessment included, screening qualitative test using microbial inhibition test, followed by quantification of oxytetracycline (OTC) residues levels for positively detected samples by using HPLC Technique. Prevalence of OTC residues was 10% and all positive detected samples had OTC residues above MRL levels by FAO/WHO-CAC 2-2012. The mean value levelof OTC was766.3± μg/l. About 83.6% of respondents call livestock officers in the event of a sick cow and 56.4% of cases OTC were prescribed.On health risks associated with consumption of raw milk with antibiotics, 91.8% of respondents were aware. Screening for residues at the milk collection centers is recommended and further investigation of the milk production practices among small-scale dairy farmers is required. This will provide a basisfor designing appropriate and effective small scale milk production practices which will reduce milk contamination and help to protect the health of consumers in Tanzania.Item Assessment of Antimicrobial Usage and Antimicrobial Residues in Broiler Chickens in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania(Asian Network for Scientific Information, 2009) Nonga, H.E; Mariki, M; Karimuribo, E.D; Mdegela, R.HPresence of antimicrobial residues in broiler meat was determined in a cross-sectional study conducted in Morogoro, Tanzania between January and February, 2007. Twenty smallholder broiler chicken farmers were interviewed on the types of antimicrobials used and their awareness on withdrawal period. In addition, 70 broiler chicken liver samples were collected for qualitative antimicrobial residues analysis by use of two parallel tests; agar well diffusion and Delvotest SP ® assay. Ninety percent of the respondents frequently used tetracycline, amprolium, sulphonamides, trimethoprim, neomycine and flumequine to their chickens. Ninety percent of the respondents had knowledge on antimicrobial withdrawal period. However, 95% of farmers slaughtered their chicken before withdrawal period because were afraid of losses and were unaware of the effects of antimicrobial residues in humans. Laboratory results indicated that 70% (n = 14) of the farms were positive to antimicrobial residues. This shows a widespread misuse of antimicrobials by poultry farmers and reflecting lack of implementation of withdrawal times. It is stressed that stricter regulation for the use of antimicrobials in chicken and inspection of chicken for residues prior to marketing. However, poultry farmers need to be educated on the possible effects associated with use of food with antimicrobial residues.Item Assessment of Antimicrobial Usage and Residues in Commercial Chicken Eggs from Smallholder Poultry Keepers in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania(2009) Nonga, H. E.; Simon, C.; Karimuribo, E. D.; Mdegela, R. H.Occurrence of antimicrobial residues in commercial chicken eggs was determined in Morogoro municipality between January and February 2007. Twenty smallholder farmers were interviewed on the types of antimicrobials, reasons of use and their awareness on antimicrobial withdrawal period. Seventy egg samples were collected for qualitative antimicrobial drug residues analysis by use of agar well diffusion and Delvotest SP assays. It was found that farmers use antimicrobial drugs as prophylaxis and treatment of common chicken diseases namely fowl typhoid (85%), infectious bursa disease (Gumboro) (65%) infectious coryza (65%), collibacilosis (55%), coccidiosis (54%), Newcastle disease (50%), helminthosis (20%) and fowl pox (15%). Antimicrobials accounted for 85% of the drugs commonly used. It was also found that 65% of the farmers treat their chicken themselves. The common drugs were oxytetracycline (75%), egg booster (50%), amprolium (35%), sulphamethoxypyridazine (35%), sulphanilamide (25%), chlortetracyclines (10%), chloramphenicol (10%), sulphadiazine– trimethoprim (20%), duoxycycline (20%), sulphadiazine (25%) and flumequine (10%). Eighty per cent of the farmers had knowledge on antimicrobial withdrawal period sold eggs before withdrawal period and almost 85% were unaware of possible effects of antimicrobial residues in humans. All 70 eggs were positive to antimicrobial residues by Delvotest kit, but 21.4% positive with agar well diffusion test. It was concluded that the presence of antimicrobial residues in table eggs could be of public health significance to the egg consumers in Morogoro municipality.Item Assessment of beef microbial contamination at abattoir and retail meat shops in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania(African Journal Online, 2014-11-19) Ntanga, P. D.; Mdegela, R. H.; Nonga, H. E.A cross section study was conducted in Morogoro Municipality to assess microbial contamination in beef production chain from abattoir to retail meat shops during February to May, 2012. Questionnaire on abattoir and meat shop hygiene was administered to 60 respondents. Meat, meat in-contact surface swab and water samples at the abattoir (n=36) and 14 meat shops (n=56) were analyzed for Total Viable Counts (TVC), Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Total Faecal Coliform Counts (TFC). It was found that the respondents had not attended to any training on meat hygiene, had no protective gears and do not perform regular health examination. The infrastructure appeared obsolete. Carcasses and meat handling environment at abattoir and retail meat shops were in unhygienic condition. Water was scarce in the abattoir and meat shops. Water analysis showed heavy microbial contamination (mean TVC log 5.2±0.3). All the meat and meat in-contact surfaces were at different levels of microbial contamination and were beyond FAO recommendations. The mean TVC in meat was Log 7.2±1 cfu/g with the highest count (Log 7.24±1.3 cfu/g) recorded in samples from meat shops. The mean TVC on meat in-contact surfaces was Log 6±1.3 cfu/cm2 while mean TCC and TFC in meat were Log 6.1±1.6 and 5.9±1.7 cfu/g respectively. High microbiological loads in meat indicate gross contaminations along the whole meat value chain and pose potential risks for public health. Results obtained in this study provide information to the local government authorities and all stakeholders in the meat industry for proper management of the abattoir, retail meat shops and personnel; outlines key aspects for interventions and suggests future developments to prevent health risks associated with handling and consumption of contaminated meat.Item Assessment of causes of organ condemnations, financial losses and foetal wastage in cattle slaughtered at Bukoba Municipal abattoir, Kagera, Tanzania(African Journal Online, 2014-09-03) Msafiri, P. A.; Nonga, H. E.; Kassuku, A.Retrospective and prospective studies were carried out at Bukoba Municipal abattoir, Tanzania to identify causes of cattle organs condemnation and assess financial implications and magnitude of slaughter of pregnant cows and heifers. A retrospective study used data from 2011 to 2013 found that a total of 13,970 cattle were slaughtered and inspected. The prevalence of liver fasciolosis was 28.5%, lung congestion 10.2%, emphysema 5.1%, kidney haemorrhages 7.7% and hydronephrosis 4.3%. During a prospective study carried out in January 2014, post-mortem inspection of 692 cattle was done. The prevalence of liver fasciolosis was 37.6%, flabby heart 11.3%, emphysema 11.0% and lung congestion (6.6%). Value of condemned organs in one month of January 2014 was estimated to be Tanzanian shillings (TZS) 7,351 000 equivalent to US$ 4,595. Estimated total of TZS 6,174 600 (US$ 3,860) resulted from liver condemnations and TZS 6,092 400 (US$ 3,808) from liver fasciolosis which is 82.9% of the total financial losses. Of all the 480 cows and heifers slaughtered, 75 (15.6%) were found to be pregnant. The high condemnation rates led to financial losses and some of the conditions are of zoonotic importance. The indiscriminate slaughter of pregnant animals is against animal welfare. Therefore, diseases surveillance and control measures need to be strengthened, and enforcement of legislation governing animal welfare to curb the slaughter of pregnant animals.Item Assessment of farming practices and uses of agrochemicals in Lake Manyara basin, Tanzania(2011-05-18) Nonga, H. E.; Mdegela, R. H.; Lie, E.; Sandvik, M.; Skaare, J. J.This study was conducted to assess farming practices, agrochemical usage and environmental pollution in Manyara basin, Tanzania. Field surveys, interviews, questionnaires and Lake Manyara nutrient analysis were used in data collection. The highest number (95%) of households grew crops, namely, maize, rice, banana and vegetables with median farm size of 3 ha. Irrigated farming was common (75%) which enhanced cultivation on same piece of land up to 6 times a year. Farmers indiscriminately used pesticides, namely, insecticides (50%), fungicides (37.5%) and herbicides (12.5%). Uses of endosulfan in vegetable farms poses public health threats to consumers. Most respondents (85%) applied insecticides in vegetables up to 4 times per cropping season. Excessive use of pesticides and haphazard disposal of pesticide remnants and containers caused environmental pollution. The average amount of acaricides used was 1109±915 ml (mean ± SD) per livestock keeper per month per. Most farmers (78%) used inorganic fertilizers and animal manure (43.4%). Low levels of ammonium (3.6±3.1 μg/L), nitrate (1±0.8μg/L) and phosphate (36.1±42 μg/L) were recorded in the lake. Easy access to agrochemicals, limited knowledge of pesticide on environmental health and limited extension services were factors for indiscriminate uses of agrochemicals. Increasing farmers awareness and training aimed at sustainable agriculture, agrochemical uses and integrated pest management is suggested.Item Assessment of human-snake interaction and its outcomes in Monduli district, northern Tanzania(Tanzania Journal of Health Research, 2015-01) Nonga, H. E.; Haruna, A.Human-snake interactions has always been associated with different outcomes. This crosssectional study was conducted to assess the human-snake interaction and its outcomes in Monduli District, northern Tanzania. Data collection was done through questionnaires, key informants interviews and record review of snake bite cases at Meserani Snake Park Clinic. Most respondents (97%) in the study area had ever encountered snakes mostly in livestock grazing areas (41.5%) especially at noon hours. The common types of snakes were the black ones (44.6%) and most of these (58%) were non-poisonous species. Twelve species of snakes were reported to be found in the area while 22 species dominated by Psammophis s. subtaeniatus and Eryx colubrinus loveridgei were under zoo environment. Fifty seven people were bitten by snakes in the study area in 2012 and majority of the cases were recorded between February and April. It was further reported that many respondents (92.3%) feel worried whenever they encounter snakes and the reaction is to kill it as a means of control. This was because snakes were regarded as dangerous creatures and were not used in any traditional practices (81.5%). There was a hostile interactions between human and snakes and always humans hated snakes and, killed them whenever were encountered. Basic educations on snake conservation have to be provided to the community to avoid unnecessary killing of snakes.Item Assessment of hygienic practices and faecal contamination of beef at Vingunguti slaughterhouse in Dar es salaam, Tanzania(African Journal Online, 2013-05-15) Ndalama, E.; Mdegela, R. H.; Nonga, H. E.An investigation was conducted between January to February 2013 to assess the hygienic practices and faecal contamination of beef at Vingunguti slaughterhouse using Escherichia coli as an indicator organism. Hygienic practices were assessed using a questionnaire survey to 40 slaughterhouse workers. Faecal sampling was done to 75 slaughter cattle and after slaughter swab samples from neck, shoulder, pelvis and thigh muscles of dressed carcasses were collected and were subjected to standard bacteriological analysis for E. coli O157 isolation. The findings revealed poor hygienic practices, lack of adequate knowledge on the existence of enteropathogens and meat contamination, and a negative perception on improving sanitary conditions and practices by workers. There were no essential basic facilities for a slaughterhouse such as potable running water, separated clean and dirty areas, stunning and bleeding facilities, area for inspection of carcasses, properly working drainages, cold room, changing room, protective clothing for the workers and proper working tools. Animals were slaughtered, dressed and meat handled in dirty environment that caused gross contamination of meat. The drainage system was dilapidated and there were no defined means of waste disposal. E. coli Escherichia coli was isolated in all the samples analysed. However, E. coli O157 strain was not isolated in all the samples analysed. It is concluded that the hygienic practices, slaughterhouse facilities and conditions at Vingunguti slaughterhouse are poor predisposing carcasses to faecal contamination. Measures to improve the sanitary situation are recommended particularly the water supply and drainage, slaughter methods, meat handling practices and standard abattoir equipment.Item Assessment of microbiological quality of raw fruit juice vended in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania(Elsevier, 2015-05-01) Simforian, E.; Nonga, H. E.; Ndabikunze, B. K.Fresh fruit juices are highly nutritious food for human but the hygiene involved during preparation, packaging and storage make fresh juices prone to microbial contamination. This study was conducted to assess bacterial quality and establish the risk factors for contamination of raw fruit juices vended in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania. Ninety fruit juice vendors were assessed for possible factors of microbial contamination in fruit juices. One juice sample per vendor was collected for microbial analysis using standard laboratory protocols of International Standards Organisation (ISO), Tanzania Bureau of Standards and Codex specifications. The results showed that the total plate counts (TPC) ranged between 2.32 and 8.54 (Log cfu/ml). About 72.2% of juice samples had TPC above Codex recommended maximum levels (3.7e4.7 Log cfu/ml). The prevalence of Escherichia coli in the juices was 80% with a range between 0.0 and 5.0 (Log MPN/ml) suggesting of direct faecal contamination or contamination from the environment. All samples were negative for Salmonella species. Risk factors for high TPC and E. coli counts which were statistically significant (P < 0.05) included type of juice, extraction methods, vending sites, storage containers and sex of the vendors. Generally, 78.9% of preparation and vending premises were unhygienic and encouraged contamination of the juices. It is concluded that, the overall handling, preparation practices and bacterial quality of unpasteurized fruit juices vended in Dare es Salaam city are poor. The government should educate the vendors on food safety and hygiene as well as enforcing regular monitoring of the quality of street fruit juices.Item Assessment of physicochemical characteristics and hygienic practices along the value chain of raw fruit juice vended in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania(Tanzania Journal of Health Research, 2014-10) Nonga, H. E.; Simforian, E. A.; Ndabikunze, B. K.Fresh fruit juice is an essential component of human diet and there is considerable evidence of health and nutritional benefits. However, nature of the fruits used in juicing and unhygienic processes in the value chain may cause poor quality of juice. This cross-sectional study was conducted to assess physicochemical characteristics and hygienic practices along the value chain of raw fruit juice vended in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. A total of 90 juice vendors were interviewed. Ninety juice samples were collected and analysed for physicochemical quality. The pH of juices ranged between 2.7 and 6.4, acidity 0.01% and 1.3% and, total soluble solids ranged between -1.5 and 18.04 ⁰Brix. Most juices (67.8%) had ⁰Brix levels below Codex recommended values classified as weak and watery. Juices were made of mango, passion, tamarind, sugar cane and mixture of these fruits sourced from open markets in the city. Water for washing of fruits and dilution of juices was from deep wells (53.3%) and taps (46.7%). About one third (37.8%) of the juice vendors didn’t wash the fruits before juicing and 44.4% didn’t boil water for juice dilution. Juice extraction was done by kitchen blenders, boiling in water and squeezing by simple machines. Juice pasteurization was not done. The majority of vendors (78.9%) stored juices in plastic buckets and juice was sold in glass cups, reused plastic bottles and disposable cups. Vending sites were restaurants, bus stands and along roadsides. The majority of premises (78.9%) were in unhygienic condition that likely encouraged or introduced contaminants to the juices. It is concluded that, the overall handling, preparation practices and physicochemical quality of raw fruit juices vended in Dare es Salaam City are poor. The government should educate the vendors on food safety and hygiene as well as enforcing regular monitoring of the quality of street fruit juices.