Department of Animal, Aquaculture and Range Sciences

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Meat from goats in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 1978) Kyomo, Martin Luther
The shortage of protein of high biological value in the tropics could be decreased by raising larger numbers of indigenous ruminant livestock, and of increasing off take and weight per animal destined for slaughter. In Tanzania, where there are about five million goats and their meat is already very popular, improvement of goats through better breeding, feeding and disease control methods could lead to a several-fold increase in the present annual production of 1.3 million goat carcasses. The paucity of data on which to base goat improvement methods was the major reason for undertaking this study. A comparison was made in reproductive performance, growth rate and carcass yield between the Tanzania indigenous goats and the Tanzania x Boer and the Tanzania x Kamorai goats. The total numbers of animals involved in the study, which was conducted between 1972 and 1976, inclusive, were 7 sires, 177 dams and 559 progeny. The study confirmed earlier untested theories that the Tanzania goat, which belongs to the East African breed type of goat, produces kids throughout the year. There were, however, peak periods in which more dams kidded than in other periods. The total amount of rain falling during a given period was the only environ mental factor affecting the time of conception of the dams (P < 0.001) . This relationship seemed to be an indirect one, in that more rain meant more forage growth-(ii) and availability and therefore better body condition of the dams. Better fed dams ovulate, conceive when mated, and maintain pregnancy to term more readily than underfed dams. The twinning rates and mortality of kids have been reported in the-thesis. The effects of year, sex, seasons and birth type, whether singles or twins, on weight at various ages have been reported. The slight superiority of castrates over the entire male kids in growth rate observed in this thesis calls for more studies to see if the hormonal patterns related to growth were different from those of animals of similar sexes in other domestic livestock. The heritability estimates for weight at birth, weaning, one year and 72 weeks of age were 0.7 ± 0.10, 0.14 ± 0.14, 0.07 ± 0.11 and 0.017 ± 0.16, respectively. The weight of kids could, for practical purposes on the farms, be predicted by the formula : Weight (in kg) = - 4.22 ± 0.15 .+ (0.00806 ± 0.00007 x Girth (in cm) x Length (in cm) . (R2 = 88.2%) The cold dressed carcass percentages of the Boer and Kamorai crossbred and Tanzania purebred kids were 45.57, 45.34 and 45.34 per cent, respectively. The areas of the eye muscle (Longissimus dorsi) measured on the 10th and 11th ribs of the male and castrated kids ranged between 11.77 and 14.27 square centimetres. The castrated kids had more total lean, fat and bone than the entire(iii) male kids. The heritability estimates for cold dressing percentage, total lean, total fat and total bone within the carcass were 0.7, 0.3, 0.04 and 0.4, respectively. It is concluded that this study has contributed to the knowledge on meat goat production characteristics in the tropics and will form a basis on which to plan the breeding and management of commercial meat goats in Tanzania.
Nutritive value of orchard grass for cattle and sheep
(West Virginia University, 1980) Madata, Gaspary S.
A study was undertaken to examine seasonal and growth stage effects on intake and digestibility of orchardgrass by grazing cows and to determine effects of fertilization of orchardgrass with kieserite on its nutritive quality and on its mineral composition and utilization. A series of grazing and digestibility trials on orchardgrass were carried out in 1977 and 1978 using sheep and beef cows. In March, 1978, replicated orchardgrass pastures were treated with and without kieserite at the rate of 2240 kg/ha (equivalent to 390 kg Mg/ha). Chromic oxide was used as an external indicator to estimate the fecal output and regression techniques relating fecal N and DMD(Z) were used to estimate the nutritional value of orchardgrass. In grazing trials run in 1977, it was found that intake of first growth vegetative herbage was higher than intake of the pasture at later growth stages. However, in grazing trials run in 1978, intake of first growth vegetative herbage was not different from intake of herbage grazed in October. Dry matter digestibility (Z) was higher in the early first growth herbage than at other growth stages. The grazing cows on the whole had higher mean DMD(Z) coefficients than the indoor animals. Magnesium fertilizer had no effect (P>0.05) on DMD(Z) and intake of either cut or grazed herbage. ^fertilization significantly increased the concentration of sulfur in herbage, with no effect166 on the concentrations of other minerals. Magnesium fertilization caused a consistent but non-significant (P>0.05) inrrwmp in serum magnesium in grazing beef cows in the two week period after turning the cows out to pasture. Magnesium availability, as measured with wether sheep during the same period, was high and, unexpectedly, fertilization resulted in a depression in apparent absorption of magnesium, calcium and phosphorus. In conclusion, there were significant effects of growth stage and season on the nutritional quality of orchardgrass. Fertiliza tion with kieserite showed no differences in the .nutritional quality of orchardgrass.
Alkali treatment of roughages and energy utilization of treated roughages fed to sheep and goats
(University of Dar es Salaam, 1981) Ndelilio, Urio A.,
Two series of experiment were conducted, laboratory scale experiments, and and production experiments. The laboratory scale scale experiments were carried out to develop simple methods of alkali-treatment, and to test the- effectiveness of cheap alternative chemicals lo sodium hydroxide. Pro duction experiments were conducted to tost the effectiveness of an apparently promising "dip" treatment motheJ developed in the laboratory scale experiments. and k.a Ca(CII) The effectiveness of Na9CO3 emu lUn,2 cis roughage treating chemicals were tested in combination with NaOH in a 3 x 3 factorial experiment. The levels of the chemicals tested were 0, 3 and 6 g/100 g of roughage (DM). was used as a test roughage. Wheat straw Neither of the chemicals re- suited in any improvement in the digestibility of the straw’ although Ca(OII)2 showed a slight effect in increasing the enzyme soluble organic matter of wheat straw. Both chemicals showed a somewhat negative interaction with NaOH. Maize stover and Hyparrhenia grass were also treated with increasing levels of Na2COg from 0 to 10 g/100 g of roughage DM. Maize stover did not show any response to Na2CO3 treatment except for its enzyme soluble organic matter which increased with increasing levels of Na2CO3. The enzyme soluble organic matter for the untreated maize stover was 29%, while that for maize stover treated with 10 g Na2CO-/ 100 g of roughage DM was 43.6%. Hyparrhenia grass responded comparatively better to Na?CO3 treatment than maize stover. Addition of herring meal to the roughages resulted in a(X) marked improvement in the digestibility of both roughages. This also improved the response of the roughages to ^2^0^ treatment. Maize stover showed a higher response to the addition of herring meal than IJyparrhenia grass. The chemical composition of 4 samples of local Magadi soda was determined. All the samples had high sodium chloride contents, indicating a possibility of Magadi soda having a positive effect on voluntary feed intake. It was rioted that some samples had rather high fluorine contents. Studies were conducted on the effectiveness of a simple "dip" method which involved dipping straw in a 1.5% NaOH solution overnight, letting it drip, washing with minimum water, and letting it drip again. The lye solution was reused 15 times, the strength of the solution being restored after each treatment. The DM and Na content of the lye solution increased with increasing reuse of the solution. The DM content of the solution increased from 1.9% to 7.2%, while the Na content increased from 0.7 to 1.4%. Both the DM and Na contents of the solution tended to stabilize after the solution had been reused more than 10 times. The IVOMD and ESOM of the treated straw increased with increasing reuse of the solution. The in vivo DM and OM digestibility as well as DE of the straw was improved markedly by the dip method. The digestibility of OM of the untreated straw was 50% as opposed to 73% for the dip treated straw. The diges tibility of DM and OM in vivo was not affected by the reiise of the solution although that of CF tended to decrease slightly after the solution had been reused more than 10 times.(Xi ) In the production experiments a comparative slaughter technique was applied with sheep and goats. Three groups of goats were fed rations based on untreated maize cobs, "dip" treated maize cobs (NaOII-treatment) , and Chlorin gayana hay. The experimental feeding period was 100 days. The DM intake from these rations was the same in the three groups, but the dip NaOII treatment of maize cobs resulted in a higher DM digestibility (G4.1% as opposed to ) higher metabolizable energy intake (4.19 MJ as opposed to 3.40 MJ/d) when compared to the group fed untreated maize The group fed dip treated maize cobs also had sig cobs. nifleant higher gains in liveweight, carcass weight, car- cass fat, and carcass gross energy content. This group, however, did not differ significantly from the group fed Chloris gayana hay in these parameters. It was also observed that, the group fed dip treated maize cobs had a tendency to lay down intestinal fat. Three groups of sheep were also fed on untreated maize stover, dip treated maize stover and ensiled (NaOH-treated) Hyparrhenia grass silage for 100 days. centrate in the DM intake was about 20%. The level of con Although dip treat ment of maize stover increased its digestibility, this did not result in significant differences in performance between the group fed untreated maize stover in all the parameters studied. The groups fed maize stover (untreated or treated) had however significantly bettor performance in all para- meters measured than the group fed NaOII-treated Hyparrhonxa silage.(xii) CorreiaLions wore determined between whole carcass fat Z and carcass weight, and between carcass fat -i and carcass specific gravity. In goats, the correlation coefficient for carcass fat Z on carcass weight was 0.84, while that between carcass fat " and carcass specific gravity was -0.97. These para meters (carcass weight, and carcass specific gravity) can there?fore probably bo used to estimate carcass fat S and consequently carcass energy content in goats. The correlation coefficient between carcass fats and carcass weight in sheep was only 0.52, while that between carcass fat S and carcass specific gravity was -0.79. In addition to those comparatively low relationships in sheep, it was noted that carcass specific gravity was rather sen sitive and difficult to measure in fat carcasses, and liable to technical errors. It is thought that those relationships cannot therefore be applied universally to the heterogeneous sheep of East Africa.
Local knowledge and gender roles in different livestock production system in Tanzania
(1986) Maeda-Machang’u, A. D; Mutayoba, S; Laswai, G.H; Mwaseba, D; Kimambo, E; Lazaro, E
Women and men participation in the development of the livestock industry in Tanzania is determined by socio-cultural patterns, the livestock production system, local knowledge systems, existing agricultural policies, the educational system and economic and the political situations prevailing in the community. It is difficult to generalise the gender roles in all the livestock production systems, but similar patterns and trends have been unfolding as found out from several studies carried out by the authors. The main points investigated are who owns the animals, who is responsible for their care and how is work divided up and shared out (feeding, watering, milking, stable cleaning and hygienic measures). Other aspects of interest are decision-making, treating and caring of the sick animals, processing and marketing of animal products, the control of family income and assets and access to services such as veterinary, extension, co-operatives and credit facilities. The livestock production studies were conducted in Morogoro, Tanga, Iringa, Mwanza, Mbeya, Mara and Kilimanjaro regions. Districts in these regions were purposely chosen to represent one type production system such as pastoralism, agro-pastoralism and intensive specialized production. The general trend deduced from literature and studies carried out by the authors is that men in all livestock production systems own and are responsible for large animals such as cattle, donkey, sheep, pigs and goats whereas, women are responsible for small ones such as poultry, rabbits and ducks. However, in some systems women feed the large animals and calves, and are called to assist in their health-related issues. Poultry production although very important for women as a source of food and cash, has a very low status in the society and extension services rendered. The pastoralists and agro-pastoralists are still practicing traditional animal husbandry. Intensive livestock farmers have specialized into keeping a few high milk-yielding dairy animals mainly pure-breeds or crossbreeds at zero grazing. Despite advances in veterinary medicines and services, traditional an d local methods of tackling health problems and diseases of livestock were still practised by almost all production systems studied. It was noted that livestock played an important link in the household food security as a source of food and cash for buying other needed food products. This paper will discuss local knowledge systems in the different livestock production systems and its contribution to food security. Analysis will also be made of the quantitative and qualitative participation of men and women in different animal husbandry practices and on other productive, reproductive, socio-cultural activities and access and control over resources. A list of local herbs used for treatment of various animal health problems and diseases will also be discussed.
Investigations on the nutritive value and practical ways of feeding cassava roots to pigs
(Sokoine University Of Agriculture, 1990) Lekule, Faustin Paul
The study was conducted to evaluate the feeding value of cassava roots in four growth and two metabolic experiments. In the growth studies, feed was offered ad libitum except protein supplement to pigs fed fresh cassava tubers. The pigs were group fecjLand slaughtered as they reached 90 kg liveweight. characteristics and organ weights were determined. Carcass Cassava had no significant effect on growth rate, organ weights, gut fill or carcass characteristics. In experiment 3 and 4, a comparison was made of commercial sow and weaner (SW) meal. the cassava root meal (CRM) diet, soaked cassava root tubers (CRT) diet and rice polishings (RP) diet. The average daily gains were 625 g, 635 g, 609g and 660 g. and feed conversion ratios (kg EM feed/kg gain) 4.44, 4.19, 4.05 and 3.89 for the SW diet, CRM diet, CRT diet and RP diet. respectively. The average daily feed intake (kg dry matter) was 2.58kg, 2.55 kg, and 2.47 kg for pigs fed the SW diet, CRM diet CRT diet and RP diet, respectively. Pigs fed soaked cassava root tubers consumed 3.5 kg cassava/pig/day and required 406 kg cassava tubers and 152 kg protein supplement form 20 to 90 kg liveweight. In experiment 5, cassava root meal and cassava root tubers were again compared with cottonseed cake as the main protein source or a combination of cottonseed cake and sunflower rake. Daily gains feed intake and feed conversion ratio (kg EM/kg gain) were .551 g, 638 g, and 589 g, 1.87 kg, 2.10 kg, and 2.03 kg, and 3.45, 3.36 and 3.56 cottonseed cake, respectively. for CRT + sunflower cake diets, CRM CRM + cottonseed cake + sunflower cake diets Pigs fed fresh cassava root tubers consumed 2.97 kg cassava/pig/day and required 383 kg cassava and 112 kg protein supplement from 20 to 90 kg liveweight. Experiment 6 was designed to examine the voluntary feed intake, growth rate and feed conversion of pigs fed a diet considered as a standard cassava diet (2/3 cassava, 1/3 protein giving a 15% CP diet) under Tanzania conditions. Feed intake was about 30% higher in the ad lib, fed barrows than in the ad lib. fed gilts and restricted barrows and gilts, while growth rate was about 23% higher. It is concluded that cassava is a good energy source for pigs, and where it is relatively cheap and abundant, it could be used as the only energy source in diets of growing-finishing pigs and cottonseed cake could form the major part of the protein supplement.
Studies on the prospects of improving the performance of the local chicken population in Tanzania by crossbreeding
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1990) Katule, Andalwisye M.
The present study was initiated to explore the possibilities for developing high performing dual purpose strains of chickens adapted to low input production conditions in Tanzania. Exotic meat type, egg type and local chickens were compared for performance along with the crosses between these breeds in one year. In the following year the comparison involved the three basic breeds, the second generation crosses (F ), backcrosses, and three breed crosses of these breeds. Additional data were acquired from a crossbreeding experiment in Egypt, in which two Egyptian breeds, two White Leghorn lines from Norway, and crosses between Egyptian and Norwegian stocks were involved. Constant estimates of various genetic components (additive genetic, heterosis and reciprocal ) were obtained as coefficients of a multiple regression equation, in which the observation on each individual for a given trait was the dependent variable. The independent variables consisted of coded values ranging from 0 to 1. The general superiority of the germplasm from exotic breeds to that of indigenous breeds was demonstrated for nearly all traits considered. However, there was an indication for this superiority to decline as environmental conditions deteriorated.•Important heterosis effects were revealed-, mainly for juvenile body weights and egg production traits, including the age of sexual maturity. Evidence was revealed to suggest the existence of negative heterosis for body weights and egg size in some crosses. Reciprocal effects were found to be important in crosses involving heavy breeds and light breeds, as well as in crosses involving crossbred parents. It is concluded from these results that the high potential inherent in exotic breeds for productive traits would not be fully realized under environments pertinent with low input production systems. Some adjustment in the genetic content of the stocks would be necessary in order to make them adaptable to less optimum conditions. One of the most prospective approaches is to make some kind of crosses between exotic and indigenous chickens, followed by selection for high productivity under the sub-optimum conditions. Selection for specific adaptive qualities would be carried out if such qualities were detected.
Quality and quantity of maize and sorghum vegetative parts harvested at different stages of plant growth as fodder for livestock
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1994) Shirima,Eligy J. M
Two on-station research experiments were conducted at the Livestock Production and Research Institute, Mpwapwa and one at Pasture Research Center, Kongwa both in Central Tanzania from January to October, 1993. Four treatments in maize, grown in Mpwapwa station, were stripping (SR), topping (TP), stripping + topping (STP) at silking stage and whole plant stover (WPL or control) were assigned randomly within the four blocks of a complete randomized block design experiment. Only SR and WPL treatments were performed in sorghum trials in Kongwa under the same experimental design as in maize but each were replicated twice within each of the four blocks. Also three treatments replicated thrice for measuring the intake and digestibility of the SR, TP and WPL obtained from the maize trial were done at Mpwapwa center by using nine adult BHP male sheep. Complete block design was used by blocking the sheep on weight basis ranging from 29 to 37 kg live weights (mean 32.8 + 1.0). Both animals received equal amount of supplement diet (maize bran + sunflower cake). A village survey through questionnaire and physical body weight measurement of cattle every other fortnight was carried out in Berege village in Dodoma region from the start of the dry season (June) to mid- dry season (October). Sample collection of forage used by the animals was done on the same day after weighing the animals. Ten farmers with improved dairy cattle (Mpwapwa breed) were incorporated. An additional survey was also conducted in Kilimanjaro region among eight farmers to explore the farmer’s knowledge on the use of SR, TP and STP from maize. In maize the highest vegetative biomass production including the final residues after the grain harvest was gained with the STP treatment followed by TP with 5.44 t/ha and 5.35 t/ha respectively (p<0.05). Less fodder materials were collected from WPL (4.23 t/ha) due to field losses. No significant difference were found in sorghum fodder yields despite the leaf losses in WPL. Stripping in sorghum yield 2.2 t/ha and WPL as 1.8 t/ha. In maize total CP accrued from STP were (287 kg/ha) ), TP (234), SR (177) and WPL (138). The IVOMD of the fractions were in the order of 75%, 69%, 64% and 52% in SR, STP, TP and WPL fractions respectively. Seventy-three percent more CP was produced from SR of sorghum than WPL treatment with 123 kg/ha by 71 kg/ha respectively. Digestibility (IVOMD) of the SR leaves from sorghum was 79 % while 55 % from the WPL leaves. The feed intake of SR leaves in maize was more than twice (850 g/day) that of the WPL stover (361 g/day) when fed to sheep. The total digestible crude protein (DCP) from SR of maize was 51 % while the same from WPL was negative. With the supplement diets, the DCP of SR leaves improved slightly to 55 % but increased greatly in WPL to 51 %. From the village survey, the cattle in Berege suffered from lack of high quality feeds resulting in body weight losses during the later part of the dry season despite the bigger cultivated crop field farms than in Kilimanjaro region. With small areas of land in Kilimanjaro region, less than 1.5 ha, the maize fractions alone harvested before and after grain harvest accounted for over 39 % of the total annual cattle feed2 requirement while in Berege the combination of all dry residues after harvest (maize, sorghum and millet) formed 42 % of the total annual diet. This made the dependence of natural pasture in Kilimanjaro region to be only 28 % while in Berege village the cattle were still depending on 40 % natural pasture for the annual feed resources. Since the defoliation of maize and sorghum vegetative parts had no deleterious effects on the final grain yield, the technique should be introduced in Central Tanzania so as to make use of the enormous green materials lost in the wet season to be available in dry season. Their higher feeding value also will be an advantage to the farmers as they will buy less supplements to be added . to the forage to meet the animal requirements for maintenance and production.
Influence of various climatic factors on milk production and related traits in Mpwapwa cattle and their crosses
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1994) Msechu, James Kundaeli Kileghua
A study was carried out to examine the influence of various climatic factors on milk production in Mpwapwa breed cattle and their crosses in Livestock Production Research Institute in Mpwapwa Central Tanzania. It was based on daily milk yields and weather information recorded from 1964 to 1989. Milk yields of individual cows were accumulated for periods of 28 days and related to average weather records for the same periods and or the preceding period. A short term supplementary study was used to investigate reaction of different genetic groups of the cattle, in terms of daily milk yield, milk components, and rectal temperature, to weather conditions. Over the study period, daily maximum and minimum temperatures averaged 26.2°CS and 14・5°C, while average daily temperature-humidity index was 68.5 and 74.1 (morning and afternoon), and annual rainfall averaged 785 mm. Least squares means for 28-day milk yield (kg) were 123.8, 179.1, 175.5, 213.3, 131.1, respectively for Mpwapwa and Jersey, Ayrshire, and Friesian crosses, and Backcross. All were significantly different (P<0.05), except between Jersey and Ayrshire crosses. The studies revealed that several of the weather variables had a significant influence on milk yield during the same or the subsequent period. However, the magnitude and sign of the partial regression coefficients were inconsistent and erratic. In most analyses concurrent rainfall showed a positive relationship with milk as might be expected from the effect of rain on pasture growth. But, surprisingly, some of the temperature variables were also positively related to milk yield. Separate analyses of the data of each of the five genetic groups failed to demonstrate distinct differences between groups in reaction to the climatic factors studied. In the supplementary study daily milk yield and yield of various milk components did not appear to be influenced by concomitant weather variables. Rectal temperature was however, significantly influenced by weather variables recorded at the same time. The genetic groups did not differ significantly in rectal temperature. The lack of conclusive results might have partly been caused by the close association between some of the weather variables. Inclusion of previous milk in most of the analyses, in an effort to increase precision, may have complicated the interpretation of the results also. Further investigation on the nature of the relationships suggested by trends revealed by the study was recommended. Changes were recommended in the breeding programme to exploit the more productive
Performance of exotic dairy cattle in the southern highlands of Tanzania and prospects for genetic improvement
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1995) Kifaro, G C
Th i s study aimed was at evaluating the performance of exotic dairy cattle in five large farms in Iringa and Mbeya reg i ons. Mai n aspects stud i ed i ncluded calf mortality rates, reproductive traits, milk yield, milk composition, and lifetime performance traits. Rates of abortion ranged from 1.8 to 9.5% while rates of stillbirths varied between 3.4 and 9.8%. Death rates ranged from 9.3 to 25.5% for unweaned calves and from 13.2 to 29.6% for weaned calves. Diarrhoea/ scours, pneumonia and nutritional problems were the main causes of calf deaths. Mean ages at first calving and calving intervals for the five farms ranged from 33 to 39 months and 375 to 489 days, respectively. Overall mean lactation milk yield, lactation 1 engt-h, dry period for individual farms ranged from 2197 kg, 270 to respective!y. The most to 2642 affecting calvi ng, 1actati on and pari ty days 321 and i mportant performance current 86 to 165 non-geneti c traits calving were days, factors year i nterval . of Milk production in most farms was declining, a trend attributed to deterioration estimates calving were i n management. 0.14±0.01, i nterval, Weighted 0.21±0.02 1actati on length and and repeatabi1ity 0.37±0.01 lactation for milk yield, respectively. Mean percentages of milk components on test-days did not differ much from those recorded for Friesians elsewhere in the tropics. Stage of lactation, calendar month, parity and year of recording highly influenced their variations. Milk yield on test-days had strong negative correlations with BF% (-0.47) and protein percent (-0.53). BF and protein percentages were positively correlated (0.59). Day-to-day variation of milk yield was higher at Uyole than at Thimbu and was associated with level of milk production and inaccurate recording. The most variable milk component was protein whose variation was ascribed mainly to errors of determination. Part and cumulative milk records were highly influenced by parity, year and season of calving. Effect of calving interval was noticeable from the sixth month of lactation. Records in mid-1actation had the highest correlation with 305-day yield. Ratio and regression extension factors were derived based on findings from this study. Performance in 1i feti me traits were similar to those reported elsewhere in the tropics. Age at first calving and first lactation yield had high association with lifetime traits used in this study and were important estimators of lifetime milk production. Several options of culling procedures were proposed and discussed. It was concluded that there is great opportunity for genetic improvement of dairy cattle in the southern calves i s highlands of i mproved, the downward trend in performance is reversed, Tanzania provided viability of recordi ng is improved and a culling procedure is adopted.
The use of leucaena leucocephala (lam.) de wit forage as a feed supplement for dairy goats
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1996) Ndemanisho, Edith Eliakim
THE USE OF LEUCAENA LEUCOCEPHALA (LAM.) DE WIT FORAGE AS A FEED SUPPLEMENT FOR DAIRY GOATS Six experiments were conducted to evaluate Leucaena leucocephala (LL) as protein supplement for dairy goats. In Experiments 1 and 2 an appropriate feeding level of dry LL leaves as substitute for cotton seed cake (CSC) fed to lactating does was investigated. A total of 82 docs randomly allocated to four treatments with LL inclusion at levels of 0 (treatment 1), 180 (treatment 2), 360 (treatment 3) and 540g (treatment 4) substituting cotton seed cake at levels of 300, 200,100 and 0 g per day of the concentrate. Basal ration contained elephant grass and Rhodes grass hay ad libitum, supplemented with maize bran. Daily milk yield was sampled twice a week for chemical analysis. Fourtnight body weights and daily feed intake were recorded. In Experiment 3 comparison between fresh LL and CSC on milk yield and composition was made. Twenty eight docs were subjected to four treatment diets as follows: No LL and No CSC (treatment 1), restricted CSC (treatment 2), restricted LL (treatment 3) and LL offered ad libitum (treatment 4). The basal ration composed of Hyparrhenia rufa hay ad libitum supplemented with maize bran. Milk and FCM yields, fat, protein, total solids, solid not-fat, ash and mineral contents did not differ significantly (P>0.05) between treatments in Experiments 1,2 and 3. In Experiment 4 a total of 20 males and 20 females (weaner goats) were randomly allocated to four treatments. Dry LL inclusion levels varied from 0 (treatment 1), 100 (treatment 2), 200 (treatment 3) and 300g (treatment 4) of feed whilst those for CSC were 150, 100, 50 and 0 g per day for their respective four treatments. Basal diets included 5% urea treated maize stover sprinkled with molasses and supplemented with maize bran. Weekly body weights and daily feed intake were recorded. Liveweight changes were not significantly (P>0.05) different between treatments. Two in sacco experiments were carried out to measure the degradability and rumen parameters (pH, NH^-N, VFA) of the feed components used in Experiments 1,2, 3 and 4 in the rumen of bucks fed a standard diet (Experiment 5) and treatment diets ““Ct (Experiment 6). The fitted exponential equation (P=a+b(l-e ) was used to calculate the degradation kinetics. Results of Experiment 5 showed that maize meal was most degraded followed by maize bran, CSC, dry LL leaves and Chloris gayana. Results of Experiment 6 showed that when the bucks were fed treatment diets from Experiments 1 and 2 protein solubility of LL (intercept) was highest (P<0.05) for treatment 3 followed by treatments 2, 4 and 1. The potential degradability of DM (b) was highest (P<0.05) for CSC in treatment 2 followed by treatments 3,4 and 1. It is recommended from these studies that up to 32% of dry LL and 17% of fresh LL of total diet can be offered to dairy goats. Areas of further research are suggested.
Effect of level of inclusion of Lablab meal in diet on Carcass Chanlcteristi of blackhead Persian Sheep
(Tanzania Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 1998) Muhikambele, V. R. M.; Mtenga, L. A.; Mafwere, W. D.
Twenty four Black Head Persian (BHP) castrate lambs weighing 14.1 ± 2.7 kg were randomly allotted to four dietary treatments . Animals on treatment A (control) were fed Rhodes (Chloris gayana) hay, ad libitum as basal diet, plus 3BO-g maize bran daily. Animals on treatments B, C and D were fed 'basal diet plus 3BO g of "maize bran and lablab meal" mixture at a ratio of 2.B:1, 0.9:1 and 0.27:1, respectively daily. Four animals from each treatment were selected for slaughter at the end of 99th day of feeding. The level of inclusion of lablab in the lambs' diet had no significant effect on all killing-out characteristics. However, the increase in dietary lablab level in supplement increased the hot carcass weight (HCW) and empty body weight (EBW). The mean HCWfortreatmentsA, B, C, andD were B.O, B.B, 9.2 and 9. 7 kg, respectively, while the respective mean EBWs were 15.3, 16.9, 17.B and 1B.2 kg. Dressing percentage showed no definite pattern. Regression of HCW on EBW and on slaughter weight showed high correlation coefficients (r = 0.91 and r = 0.90, respectively). Lean tissue weight increased with increasing lablab level in the supplement diet, while fat tissue decreased with increased dietary lablab levels (P < 0.10). Differences among treatments in carcass fat were however small and statistically non-significant. Although bone tissue did not show any defined trend, animals on treatment Chad heavier (B30 vs 716 g) carcass bone than animals on treatment A (P< 0.10). Expr,essed as percentages of the carcass, the weights of lean, fat and bone showed no significant treatment effects. However, the trend was an increase in percentage of lean tissue and a decrease in percentage offat tissue with increasing level of lablab in the supplement diet (60.9,51.3, 61.1 and 63% lean and 19.1,20.2, 1B.4and 17.5%fat,for treatments A, B, C and D, respectively).
Muscle distribution in farm animals: comparison between goats and other farm animals
(1998) Mtenga, L. A.; Owen, E.; Muhikambele, V.R.M.
Eight,male goats w,ere 'slaf.lghtered at. 36 kg, live weight (approximately two thirds of mature weight) and dissected, into individual anatomic m'((s(;les. Weights of individual muscles were then grouped into 8 functional units and compared with published data on bulls, rams and boars.' There was a wide species d(tference;in "size index'~ musGles..· Abdominal wall index was highest !'n boars followed by goats, bulls and'rams, the values being 108, 1.00, 91 m:zd 90 resp.ectivety. 9,o(lts had. higher i!ldices ill four;functional units: agility, locomotion, supporting muscles 'and specialised funCtionai mu~cles.· Muscle data .. o/ goa~s indicated that goats are most aggressive followed by bulls, rams and pigs.
The Effect of Processing Method of Dolichos Bean (Lablab purpureus L. Sweet) on the Digestibility and Perfonnance of Growing-finishing pigs
(1998) Laswai, G.H.; Lekule, F. P.; Kimambo, A. E.; Sarawatt, A. E.; Sundsto, F.
A 4 x 4 Latin sqf!.are experiment was carried out using 4 bancows to investigate the effect of processing method on the digestibility ofnutrients of dolichos beans and nitrogen retention in pigs. Four diets were formulated to contain the control diet with 0.09 soybean meal or 0.33 of the control diet and O. 67 of each of either raw, boiled or roasted dolichos bean meal in diets I, II, III and IV, respectively. In another experiment, four diets were formulated such that O. 18 of raw (Diet 2), boiled (Diet 3) or roasted (Diet 4) dolichos bean meals replaced the 0.09 soybean meal contained in the contro[,(Diet I). These diets were ded to 12female and 12 castrated male pigs in a 4 x 2 factorial arrangement. Feed intake, growth performance and slaughter characteristics were evaluated. Mean values of crude protein digestability and nitrogen retention in the raw dolichos meal (50.6% and 18g/d) were relatively lower than in the processed meals (p ~ 0.05). The' corresponding values for boiled dolichos meal were higher (p < 0.05) than those of roasted meal (73.6% versus 65.2% and 12.8g/dversus 8. 7g/d)~ Animals fed on the raw dolichos diet (Diet 2) had significantly lower growth rates and poorer feed conversion ratio. The two parameters were improved on the animals fed on heat-treated dolichos diets. It was concluded that thermC!-processing, particularly boiling greatly improved nutrient availability and overall utilisation of dolichos bean meal for pigs.
Effect of level of inclusion of lablab meal in diet on carcass characteristic of Blackhead Persian Sheep
(1998) Muhikambele, V.R.M.; Mtenga, L.A.; Mafwere, W.D.
Twenty four Black Head Persian (BHP) castrate lambs weighing 14.1 ± 2.7 kg were randomly allotted to four dietary treatments . Animals on treatment A (control) were fed Rhodes (Chloris gayana) hay, ad libitum as basal diet, plus 3BO-g maize bran daily. Animals on treatments B, C and D were fed 'basal diet plus 3BO g of "maize bran and lablab meal" mixture at a ratio of 2.B:1, 0.9:1 and 0.27:1, respectively daily. Four animals from each treatment were selected for slaughter at the end of 99th day of feeding. The level of inclusion of lablab in the lambs' diet had no significant effect on all killing-out characteristics. However, the increase in dietary lablab level in supplement increased the hot carcass weight (HCW) and empty body weight (EBW). The mean HCWfortreatmentsA, B, C, andD were B.O, B.B, 9.2 and 9. 7 kg, respectively, while the respective mean EBWs were 15.3, 16.9, 17.B and 1B.2 kg. Dressing percentage showed no definite pattern. Regression of HCW on EBW and on slaughter weight showed high correlation coefficients (r = 0.91 and r = 0.90, respectively). Lean tissue weight increased with increasing lablab level in the supplement diet, while fat tissue decreased with increased dietary lablab levels (P < 0.10). Differences among treatments in carcass fat were however small and statistically non-significant. Although bone tissue did not show any defined trend, animals on treatment Chad heavier (B30 vs 716 g) carcass bone than animals on treatment A (P< 0.10). Expr,essed as percentages of the carcass, the weights of lean, fat and bone showed no significant treatment effects. However, the trend was an increase in percentage of lean tissue and a decrease in percentage offat tissue with increasing level of lablab in the supplement diet (60.9,51.3, 61.1 and 63% lean and 19.1,20.2, 1B.4and 17.5%fat,for treatments A, B, C and D, respectively).
Gender roles, local knowledge, food security and biodiversity in different livestock production systems in Tanzania
(FAO, 1999) Machang'u, A. D.; Mutayoba, S.; Laswai, G.H.; Mwaseba, D.; Kimambo, E.; Lazaro, E.
Tanzania has a large livestock population of about 13 million cattle; 3.7 million sheep; 6.4 million goats; 275,00 pigs and over 22 million chickens (1984 Census). The ruminant population is mainly concentrated in Northern zone (Arusha), Central Zone (Dodoma and Singida); Western zone (Shinyanga and Tabora) and Lake zone (Mwanza and Mara). This distribution has an important implication in terms of production, marketing and resource use pattern (particularly land resource). Livestock production in Tanzania is organised under two main sectors; the commercial and the traditional sectors. The commercial sector was once dominated by a few para-statal dairy farms and beef ranches which have recently been privatised. This sector also include a thriving urban and peri-urban private commercial poultry and small-scale dairy farms and accounts for about 15% of the total livestock population in the country. The traditional sector accounts for about 99% of the country's cattle herd and 85% of the chicken. Under this sector animals kept are mainly indigenous breeds like Tanzania shorthorn zebu (TSZ) (98%) while pure beef and dairy breeds constitute 0.8% and 1% respectively (Shayo and Mlay 1986).
Studies on preparation and use of bovine pepsin from adult cattle Abomasa as rennet substitute for small scale cheese processing
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1999) Ryoba, Ruth Nnala Z.
World-wide shortage of rennet has stimulated interest in the search for rennet substitutes. In order to overcome the scarcity and high price for rennet in Tanzania, studies on preparation of a rennet substitute from cattle abomasa were undertaken in three experiments Experiment one dealt with investigations into the optimisation of pepsin extraction conditions i.e. on regions of abomasa, extraction of dry versus fresh material, drying methods, ionic strength, extraction pH, temperature, time, activation pH and clarification methods. Results showed that the fundic region, sundrying, 10% salt, extraction with HCL at pH 3 fbr 3 days, at 37° C, activation pH 2 fbr 30 min and clarification using NazHPC^.H?。produce an extract with maximum milk clotting activity (MCA). Optimum conditions were applied to extract pepsin with dilute HCL, vinegar and lemon juice. Vinegar (VP) and HCL (HP) gave better yield, shelf-life, proteolytic activity, chymosin:pepsin ratio, microbial quality and formagraph characteristics than lemon juice. Concentrating VP extract lead to greater loss in MCA than for HP extract. In experiment two, HP extract was purified by DEAE cellulose chromatography, gel filtration, mono Q and phenyl sepharose chromatography. Studies on the purified enzyme with regard to formagraph characteristics, molecular mass, sodium dodecylsulphate gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and N-terminal amino acid sequence showed that pepsin was homogenous with fold purification of 366, recovery rate of 32.7%,Ill Specific activity 3920 MCA (units/mg), molecular mass 34,500 Da. The N-terminus of purified pepsin contained no lysine and the MCA decreased with enzyme purity. In experiment 3, HP and VP extracts were mixed with rennet at 0, 25, 50, 75, 100% and used for making three types of cheese. Renneting time (RT) for cheese milk, butterfat (%BF) and total nitrogen (%TN) in whey, chemical composition and microbial quality of cheese samples obtained at different storage time intervals, sensory evaluation at maturity and overall quality assessment were determined. RT and TN losses increased with level of pepsin; chemical composition of all cheese types were significantly different (Pv.001). The pH in SUA Pastafilata and SUA Alpine and TN in Tilsiter cheese were not significantly different (P>0.05). Sensory evaluation was not significantly different (P>0.05) in smell, taste, appearance and bitterness, however, bitterness in SUA Pastafilata and appearance in SUA Alpine were significantly different (P<0.05); appearance in SUA Pastafilata and village Alpine were significant different (P<0.01). Bitterness, taste in SUA Alpine and bitterness in Tilsiter cheeses were highly significant different (P<.001). Overall quality assessment of cheese did not show significant differences (P>0.05). Therefore all enzyme combinations were suitable for all types of cheese implying that pepsin was an appropriate rennet substitute.
The ability of sheep to reach for food through tombstone barriers, as affected by position of food, body weight and body dimensions
(2000) Muhikambele, V.R. M.; Owen, E.; Mould, F.L.; Mtenga, A.
Two studies were undertaken to provide information on the ability of sheep to reach for food similar to that for cattle fed through tombstone barriers. In the first study twenty castrate and twenty non-pregnant: female unshorn Suffolk x Mule sheep (23 - 89 kg live weight) were trained to reach through a vertical' tombstone barrierJor concentrate meal placed on a horizontal platform attached to the barrier. The barrier allowed the neck to pass through, but not the shoulders. It was hypothesised that horizontal reach forwards (F. distance from mid-point of barrier to uneaten meal) and sideways (S. distance sideways from ' mid-point of barrier to uneaten meal adjacent to barrier) would be a function of height of platform above the floor and bt size (M). Because of size. seventeen sheep (mean 34.6 kg) were unable to reach the meal when the p at form height was 75 cm. Mean (s. e.) values for F cit platform heights O. 25. 50 and 75 cm were 43.91.03. 9.40.91. 47. 00. 96 and 27.01.27 em respectively. Values for Sweresmaller but followed a similar pattern (36.61.10. 43.50.80. 41.00. 79 and 22.91.78 em). Lihearregression showed that F or S could be predicted from M (R2 >0.5) or a combination of M and withers height (R2>0. 7) when platform heights were 25. 50 or 75 cm. Reach at 0 cm platform height was not related to body weight or linear dimensions. In the second study with unshorn Suffolk x Mule sheep. ten castrates and ten non-pregnant fomales (23 - 97 kg live weight) were trained to reach through the tombstone barrier for concentrate pellets glued'. using molasses. onto a vertical plate. It was hypothesised that vertical reach (V. distance from floor to uneaten pellets) would be afunction of distance between barrier wid plate (20. 30. 40. 45. 50 cm). height of step (0. 14.2. 28.4. 42.6 cm) on which sheep placed their forelegs. and body size. With the-exception of the largest sh'eep. most were unable to reach pellets either when the barrier-to-plate distance was 45~nd 50cin. or when theforeleg-step height was 42. 6 cm. Mean (s.e) Vvaluesdecreasedwith step height (e.g. at 0 cm step. 103.83.04. 96.23.23 and 82.14.3 7cm. at 20. 30 and 40 cm plate distances respectively; at ~Ocm plate distance. 103.83.04.118.72.83 and 131.92.91 cm at O. 14.2 and 28.4 cm step heights respectively). Linear regression of V on body weight and linear dimensions (e.g. withers height and rump height) showed high correlations (R2> O. 8). V could be predicted from either M ~>O. 7) or a combination of rump height andwithers height~>0.9). The results confirm relationshipsfound in a previous investigation }'lith goats. but demonstrate that sheep have a smaller reach than goats. The data will facilitate the design of mangers for sheep with body dimensions in the range of those used.
The' effect 'of feeding position,and body size on the capacity of small ruminants to reach, for fOOd when fed through balriers
(2000) Muhikambele, V.:R. M.; Massawe, N. F.; Mtenga, L. A.; Butler, E.A.; Owen, E.
Small ruminant systems, espedally with intensification in the tropics, are increasingly involving indoor stall-feeding. To facilitate manger design, there is a needfor iriformation on the ability of the animal to reachfor food, suchas that availablefor cattle fed through barriers. Thirty eight goats (20 Galla, mean weight 28.2 kg; 18 Small East African; mean weight 24. 6 kg) and 26 sheep (16 Blackhead Persian, mean weight 24.0 kg, 10 Red Maasai; mean weight 20.4 kg), were trained to reach for concentrate meal placed on a horizontal platform through a vertical tombstone barrier. The barrier allowed the neck to pass through, but not the shoulders. 1t was hypothesized that goats would have larger reach than sheep and thatforeach species, horizontal reachforwards, F, (distancefrom mid-point of barrier to uneaten meal) and sideways,S, (distances sidewaysjrom mid-point of barrier to uneaten meal adjacent to barrier) would be ajunction of height of platform above the floor (0, 15, 30 and 45 cm) and body size (weight and linear measurements, e.g. body length). Goats had significantly larger F and S values than sheep. Mean values for Fat platform heights 0, 15, 30 and 45 cm were 37.9,41.8, 44.7 and 39.4 em respe;ctively for sheep and 45:4, 46.6, 47.2 and 43.0 cm respectively for goats. Values for S were smaller, but followed a similar pattern. Linear correlation coefficients between For S and dimensions in sheep were all low (0-0.5), but in goats, especially for F, correlations were generally high (0.4-0.8). Exceptfor the low correlation between reach and size in sheep, the results supported the hypotheses. The data will facilitate manger design for small'ruminants of similar breeds, having dimensions in the range of those used in the study.
Effect of slaughter weight on carcass characteristics and economics of pig production
(2000) Makauki, A.F.; Lekule, F.P.
A study to evaluate the effect of slllughter weight on carcass characteristics of pigs was conducted using twenty four Landrace X Large lMlite crossbred pigs. Twelve castrates and twelve gilts with average initial weight of 35 ±4.4 kg were randomly assigned to three targeted slllughter weights. Pigs were slllughtered at live weights of 60, 75 and 90 kg and measurements of carcass characteristics were taken. Cost effectiveness of each slaughter weight based on feed cost was determined. Slaughter weight of the pigs had significant (P < 0.05) influence on carcass characteristics. Increase of slaughter weight from 60 kg to 90 kg caused a rise in killing out percentage, loin eye area, carcass length and backfat thicknessjrom 65.0t069.1 %, 24 to 34crrt, 85.1 to 92.3 qnand2.2 to 3.3 cm, respectively. The proportion of kidney fat also increased with slllughter weight. Generally, the weights of carcassjoints, fillet muscle (M. psoas major), liver and kidney as percent of carcass weight decreased with increasing slaughter weight of the pigs (P< 0.05). Castrates had significantly heavier kidney fat and lighter shoulders than gilts but there was no signifi cant sex difference in killing out percentage, carcass length, weights of liver, kidney, fillet muscle, ham, loin and belly, back fat thickness and loin eye area. The slaughter weight of 60 kg was found to be more cost effective than the rest of the slaughter weights and was therefore recommended for areas where there is demand for lean meat.
Optimisation of activity and storage stability of crude pepsin extracted from adult cattle Abomasa for cheese making
(2001) Ryoba, R.; Kurwijila, L.; Minja, M.; Sorhaug, T.; Stepaniak, L.
The study conducted to investigate the activity and storage stability of crude pepsin extract for use as rennet substitute in cheese processing. The conditions tested were regions of the abomasa, fresh versus dry abomasa drying methods, maceration temperatures (37oC, 24-28oC or 15oC); maceration pH 1-6 for 6 days; activation pH (pH 1-4) and clarification by centrifugation or use of chemicals. The shelf life of the extract was evaluated under storage temperatures ranging from deep freezing at -20oC refrigeration temperatures (<10 oC) and room temperature. Results showed that fundic region of the abomasa had 70.8% pepsin while the pyloric region had only 27% pepsin. Milk clotting activity (MCA) was 1978 and 1800 pepsin units per ml (PU/ml) for sun and shade-dried abomasa respectively. Concentrations of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25% NaCl gave 1845, 2189, 1596, 1021, 462 MCA respectively. Maceration at pH 3 for 3 days at 37 oC gave the highest enzymatic activity (5536 PU/ml). Clearing of the extract by centrifugation at 3000g/15 min gave an extract with 902.3 PU/ml. Clarification by use of di-sodium phosphate (Na2HSO4) gave extract of 1679.1 PU/ml. The enzyme activity of the extract stored under deep freezer temperature was sibnificantly higher (p < 0.05) than ambient and refrigeration temperatures. However, they were significantly lower (p< 0. 001) than the activity of the extract before storage. Therefore, the best pepsin extraction conditions were found to be the use of fundic region of sundried abomasa, macerated at 37oC in an extraction solution containing 5-10% salt at pH 3 for 3 days and clarified after activation at pH2 for 20 min followed by centrifugation of sediment at 3000g/15 min or by use of anhydrous disodium phosphate. The clarified extract could retain its activity for 16 weeks when stored at - 20oC in single use portions

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