Browsing by Author "Makungu, M."
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Item Anatomy of the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens)(Macrothink Institute, 2019-02) Makungu, M.The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is an endangered species primarily distributed in the southern China and Himalayas. It lives in mountain forests with bamboo understory. This review outlines the normal anatomy of the red panda in terms of its musculoskeletal system, respiratory system, circulatory system, digestive system and urogenital system. Knowledge of the normal anatomy of individual animal species is important for species identification and accurate interpretation and diagnosis of diseases.Item Caudal mediastinal abscessation in an adult East African black headed Ewe -A case report(TANZANIA VETERINARY ASSOCIATION, 2017) Makungu, M.; Malago, J.A 4-year-old East African black headed ewe was presented to Sokoine University of Agriculture Animal Hospital with a history of loss of body condition and respiratory distress. Clinical examination revealed poor body condition, severe leukopenia with neutrophilia and lymphopenia. Radiographic examination of the thorax revealed an elongated caudal mediastinal mass with soft tissue opacity dorsal to caudal vena cava and caudal to the carina. The ewe was humanely euthanised due to deteriorated body condition. At post-mortem examination the mass contained caseous creamy material with early laminated appearance surrounded by a whitish fibrous capsule suggestive of chronic abscessation of caudal mediastinal lymph node. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis was isolated on bacterial culture of pus sample. A diagnosis of an abscessed caudal mediastinal lymph node as a result of Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis infection was made. Thoracic radiography should be considered in sheep with chronic progressive emaciation and respiratory distress. Further, in sheep with caudal mediastinal mass, caseous lymphadenitis should be considered as one of the differential diagnoses.Item Entry points to stimulation of expansion in hides and skins processing. A case of Maswa District, Tanzania(Tanzania Veterinary Journal, 2017) Chasama, G.; Babu, A.; Makungu, M.; Kirita, E.; Mwangosi, I.A study was carried out in Maswa, Tanzania to explore potential avenues for stimulating expansion in hides and skins processing. One hundred and eighteen respondents were interviewed and the gathered information analysed using SPSS. It was observed that 89.8% of the respondents’ households (HH) keep livestock with the average of 11.85 ± 1.1, 7.34 ± 0.68 and 5.61 ± 0.88 for cattle/HH, goats/HH and sheep/HH, respectively, but 75.4% of the respondents don’t sell hide or skin. Over 65.0% of the respondents use hot iron branding for animal identification. Animal slaughter was reported by 50.8% of the respondents to be done at backyard using normal knives. Sun drying on the ground, which was used by 42.4% of the respondents was found to be the major drying method. Only 3.4% of respondents add value to hides and skins by processing. Low quality of the raw material and inadequate skills were the leading constraints to industrial hides and skins processing, whereas, tick biting was the most important disease affecting hides and skins. For this status of the chain, it was proposed that a workable intervention model has to encompass placement of tanneries and slaughter slabs in the chain as new actors, linking chain actors, improving livestock services especially dipping, and reinforcing for compliance to stringent requirements regarding hides and skins production at all segments.Item Gross osteology and radiology of the pelvic limb of the adult small East African goat(Wiley, 2019-05) Makungu, M.The aim of this study was to provide the detailed normal gross osteology and radiographic anatomy of the pelvic limb in adult small East African goats as a reference for clinical use, biomedical research and teaching. Radiography of the pelvic limb was performed in five adult small East African goats. Bone specimens of four skeletally mature small East African goats were used for gross osteological study. The ilial wing was wide. The ischiatic tuberosity was prominent and well developed. The acetabulum was rounded. The minor trochanter was located caudomedially, and the femoral trochlea was deep and narrow. The lateral and medial condyles of the femur were approximately of the same size. The tibial tuberosity was prominent, and the cochlea grooves were deep with a pronounced intermediate ridge. The trochlea of the talus was deep. The patella presented a prominent tuberosity on the cranial surface. The metatarsal sesamoid bone was seen in all animals. The observed gross osteology and radiographic anatomy of the pelvic limb of small East African goats was consistent with the presence of strong extensor muscles of the hip, stifle and tarsus for propulsion during terrestrial walking and trotting.Item Hypertrophic osteopathy secondary to oesophageal foreign body in a dog - a case report(2007) Makungu, M.; Malago, J.; Muhairwa, A. P.; Mgasa, M. N.Hypertrophic osteopathy is a pathological disease process that occurs secondary to intra thoracic lesions that are either pulmonary or non pulmonary in origin. A 6-year-old female German shepherd cross was presented with complaints of losing body condition, anorexia, lameness, and swollen limbs. Clinical examination revealed swelling of all four limbs which were hard and painless on palpation. Radiographic examination of the limbs and the thoracic cavity revealed, irregular periosteal new bone formation along the shafts of most of the long bones and an oval-shaped 6 cm diameter radio dense caudal mediastinal mass. At post-mortem examination, an oesophageal diverticulum was found, filled with foul smelling creamy exudates and a bone foreign body firmly adherent to the wall. Hypertrophic osteopathy secondary to oesophageal foreign body was diagnosed based on history, clinical examination, radiography, post-mortem picture and histopathology.Item Morphology of the pelvis and Hind limb of the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) evidenced by gross Osteology, radiography and computed tomography(Anatomia Histologia Embryologia, 2015-12) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W. M.; Groenewald, H. B.; Barrows, M.; Koeppel, K. N.The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is a quadrupedal arboreal animal primarily distributed in the Himalayas and southern China. It is a species commonly kept in zoological collections. This study was carried out to describe the morphology of the pelvis and hind limb of the red panda evidenced by gross osteology, radiography and computed tomography as a reference for clinical use and identification of skeletons. Radiography of the pelvis and right hind limb was performed in nine and seven animals, respectively. Radiographic findings were correlated with bone specimens from three adult animals. Computed tomography of the torso and hind limb was performed in one animal. The pelvic bone had a wide ventromedial surface of the ilium. The trochlea of the femur was wide and shallow. The patella was similar to that seen in feline species. The medial fabella was not seen radiographically in any animal. The cochlea grooves of the tibia were shallow with a poorly defined intermediate ridge. The trochlea of the talus was shallow and presented with an almost flattened medial ridge. The tarsal sesamoid bone was always present. The lateral process of the base of the fifth metatarsal (MT) bone was directed laterally. The MT bones were widely spaced. The morphology of the pelvis and hind limb of the red panda indicated flexibility of the pelvis and hind limb joints as an adaptation to an arboreal quadrupedal lifestyle.Item Morphology of the thoracic limb of goat as evidenced by gross osteology and radiology(Anatomia Histologia Embryologia, 2017-12) Makungu, M.; Merere, B.The objective of this study was to provide the detailed normal gross osteology and radiographic anatomy of the thoracic limb in goats as a reference for clinical use and in biomedical research. Radiography of the thoracic limb was performed in five small East African goats. Radiographic findings were correlated with bone specimens from four adult small East African goats. The scapula was narrow. The major tubercle was large and extended proximally above the head of the humerus. The lateral supracondylar crest was less prominent. The lateral and medial epicondyles of the humerus were almost of the same size. The lateral surface of the lateral condyle of the humerus presented a prominent depression for the origin of extensors of the carpus and digits. The cranially located radial notch was deep seated and the radial tuberosity was represented by a rough area located nearer to the head of the radius. The fifth metacarpal bone was seen in all animals. The morphology of the thoracic limb of small East African goats indicated the presence of powerful extensor muscles and is restricted to forward and backward movements as an adaptation to terrestrial lifestyle.Item Occurrences of indigestible foreign bodies in cattle slaughtered at Morogoro Municipal Slaughterhouse, Tanzania(HINDAWI, 2018-02-22) Bwatota, S. F.; Makungu, M.; Nonga, H. E.A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the occurrence of indigestible foreign bodies (IFB) in cattle slaughtered at Morogoro Municipal Slaughterhouse, Tanzania. A total of 387 slaughter cattle were examined for presence of IFB. Out of 387 examined cattle, 93 (24.03%) had IFB in their fore stomachs. The observed IFB were plastic bags, fruit seeds, clothing materials, ropes, hairballs, leather materials, stones, metallic nails, and wire. Plastic bags were the most frequently (50.5%) observed IFB followed by fruit seeds (18.3%). A significantly (𝑝 < 0.05) high proportion of old animals (31.7%) had IFB compared to the young animals (21.2%). Similarly, the frequency of occurrence of IFB was significantly high (𝑝 < 0.05) in crossbred dairy cattle (42.3%) compared to local breeds (22.7%). Cattle that appeared with poor body condition (37.8%) were found to bemore affected (𝑝 < 0.05) by IFB than those with good body condition (15.9%). In 91.4% of animals which had IFB, all the materials were located in the rumen. This study showed that presence of IFB is a common problem in cattle slaughtered at Morogoro Municipal Slaughterhouse and may significantly cause poor production and mortality in affected animals. Therefore, appropriate solid waste disposal should be implemented.Item Osteology and Radiographic Anatomy of the Pelvis and Hind Limb of Healthy Ring-Tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta)(Anatomia Histologia Embryologia, 2014-06) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W.M.; Barrows, M.; Koeppel, K. N.In family Lemuridae, anatomical variations exist. Considering its conservation status (near threatened) and presence of similarities between strepsirrhines and primitive animals, it was thought to be beneficial to describe the gross osteology and radiographic anatomy of the pelvis and hind limb of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) as a reference for clinical use and species identification. Radiography was performed in 14 captive adult ring-tailed lemurs. The radiographic findings were correlated with bone specimens from two adult animals. Additionally, computed tomography of the hind limbs was performed in one animal. The pelvic bone has a well-developed caudal ventral iliac spine. The patella has a prominent tuberosity on the cranial surface. The first metatarsal bone and digit 1 are markedly stouter than the other metatarsal bones and digits with medial divergence from the rest of the metatarsal bones and digits. Ossicles were seen in the lateral meniscus, inter-phalangeal joint of digit 1 and in the infrapatellar fat pad. Areas of mineral opacity were seen within the external genitalia, which are believed to be the os penis and os clitoris. Variations exist in the normal osteology and radiographic appearance of the pelvis and hind limb of different animal species. The use of only atlases from domestic cats and dogs for interpretative purposes may be misleading.Item Photoperiodic control of seasonal breeding(Open University of Tanzania, 2018) Bunyaga, A. S.; Makungu, M.Photoperiod is a powerful synchronizer of seasonal changes in endocrine and metabolic physiology in vertebrates living in tropical to polar zone. The purpose of this review is to study the factors which are involved in the process of photoperiodism in control of seasonal breeding in birds and mammals. The gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is crucial in seasonal breeding mammals and birds, whereby under the influence of thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine (T3), it stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotropins responsible for maturation of reproductive organs. The process that leads to stimulation of GnRH production differs between birds and mammals. In birds, light is perceived by deep brain photoreceptors and long day induced thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes local T3 activation. In mammals, light is perceived by the eyes and melatonin which is secreted during the night from the pineal gland regulates TSH. Therefore eyes, pineal gland and melatonin are not essential for regulation of seasonal reproduction in birds. Despite the differences, birds and mammals are subjected to common features i.e. light exposure and TSH during photostimulation. Long photoperiod causes photostimulation followed by photorefractoriness. The latter, has been thought to occur due to the influence of prolactin. The initial gonadal regression which is encountered during photorefractoriness occurs while there is still releasable GnRH. The timing of photorefractoriness is influenced by food availability, temperature and social factors like songs. The dissipation of photorefractoriness occurs during short photoperiods and is characterized by an increase in hypothalamic GnRHItem Polycystic kidneys in the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens)(Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2013-09) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W. M.; Barrows, M.; Koeppel, K. N.; Groenewald, H. B.An intact adult male 14.3-yr-old red panda (Ailurus fulgens) presented for health examination with a history of slowly progressing loss of body condition. Abdominal radiographs revealed a truncated abdomen with poor serosal abdominal detail and multiple areas of spondylosis with some collapsed intervertebral disc spaces. On computed tomography, multiple ovoid hypoattenuating lesions were seen in the left and right kidneys. Gross pathology and histopathology revealed multiple cystic lesions in the kidneys concurrent with pancreatic cysts on histopathology. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, polycystic kidneys have not been reported in this species.Item Radiographic abdominal anatomy in captive red pandas (Ailurus fulgens)(Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2018-03) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W. M.; Barrows, M.; Groenewald, H. B.; Koeppel, K. N.The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The aim of this study was to describe the normal radiographic abdominal anatomy in red pandas to provide guidance for clinical use. Radiography of the abdomen was performed in nine captive red pandas during their annual health examinations. Seven of nine animals had six lumbar vertebrae. The sacrum consisted mainly (8/9) of three fused segments. Hypaxial muscles were easily seen in animals weighing 5 kg and above. The pylorus was located to the right of the midline and cranially to the fundus in 8/9 individuals. Bunching of small intestine in the right central abdomen occurred in animals weighing 6 kg and above. The spleen was prominent. Knowledge of the normal radiographic abdominal anatomy of red pandas is important in the diagnosis of diseases and in routine health examinations.Item Radiographic and ultrasonographic abdominal anatomy in captive ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta)(American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, 2016-06) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W. M.; Barrows, M.; Groenewald, H. B.; Koeppel, K. N.The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is primarily distributed in south and southwestern Madagascar. It is classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Various abdominal diseases, such as hepatic lipidosis, intestinal ulcers, cystitis, urinary tract obstruction, and neoplasia (e.g., colonic adenocarcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma), have been reported in this species. The aim of this study was to describe the normal radiographic and ultrasonographic abdominal anatomy in captive ring-tailed lemurs to provide guidance for clinical use. Radiography of the abdomen and ultrasonography of the liver, spleen, kidneys, and urinary bladder were performed in 13 and 9 healthy captive ring-tailed lemurs, respectively, during their annual health examinations. Normal radiographic and ultrasonographic reference ranges for abdominal organs were established and ratios were calculated. The majority (12/13) of animals had seven lumbar vertebrae. The sacrum had mainly (12/13) three segments. Abdominal serosal detail was excellent in all animals, and hypaxial muscles were conspicuous in the majority (11/13) of animals. The spleen was frequently (12/13) seen on the ventrodorsal (VD) view and rarely (3/13) on the right lateral (RL) view. The liver was less prominent and well contained within the ribcage. The pylorus was mostly (11/13) located to the right of the midline. The right and left kidneys were visible on the RL and VD views, with the right kidney positioned more cranial and dorsal to the left kidney. On ultrasonography, the kidneys appeared ovoid on transverse and longitudinal views. The medulla was hypoechoic to the renal cortex. The renal cortex was frequently (8/9) isoechoic and rarely (1/9) hyperechoic to the splenic parenchyma. The liver parenchyma was hypoechoic (5/5) to the renal cortex. Knowledge of the normal radiographic and ultrasonographic abdominal anatomy of ring-tailed lemurs may be useful in the diagnosis of diseases and in routine health examinations.Item Radiographic Thoracic Anatomy of the Red Pand (Ailurus fulgens)(Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2016-09) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W. M.; Barrows, M.; Groenewald, H. B.; Koeppel, K. N.The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The natural distribution of the red panda is in the Himalayas and southern China. Thoracic diseases such as dirofilariasis, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, tracheal obstruction, lung worm infestation, and pneumonia have been reported in the red panda. The aim of this study was to describe the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of captive red pandas as a species-specific reference for routine health examinations and clinical cases. Right lateral (RL) and dorsoventral (DV) inspiratory phase views of the thorax were obtained in 11 adult captive red pandas. Measurements were made and ratios calculated to establish reference ranges for the mean vertebral heart score on the RL (8.34 6 0.25) and DV (8.78 6 0.34) views and the mean ratios of the caudal vena cava diameter to the vertebral body length above tracheal bifurcation (0.67 6 0.05) and tracheal diameter to the width of the third rib (2.75 6 0.24). The majority of animals (10/11) had 14 thoracic vertebrae, except for one animal that had 15 thoracic vertebrae. Rudimentary clavicles were seen in 3/11 animals. The ovoid, oblique cardiac silhouette was more horizontally positioned and elongated in older animals. A redundant aortic arch was seen in the oldest animal. The trachea was seen with mineralized cartilage rings in all animals. The carina was clearly seen in the majority of animals (10/11). Variations exist in the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of different species. Knowledge of the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of the red panda should prove useful for routine health examinations and in the diagnosis of thoracic diseases.Item Radiographic thoracic anatomy of the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)(2014-06) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W. M.; Barrows, M.; Groenewald, H. B.; Koeppel, K. N.Background: The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is a quadruped arboreal primate primarily distributed in south and south-western Madagascar. This study was carried out to describe the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of the ring-tailed lemur as a reference for clinical use. Methods: Radiography of the thorax was performed in 15 captive ring-tailed lemurs during their annual health examinations. Results: Normal radiographic reference ranges for thoracic structures were established and ratios were calculated, such as the vertebral heart score (VHS). The mean VHS on the right lateral and dorsoventral views was 8.92 ± 0.47 and 9.42 ± 0.52, respectively. Conclusions: Differences exist in the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of primates. Knowledge of the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of individual species is important and fundamental to assist in clinical cases and for accurate diagnosis of diseases.Item Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) anatomy(IJSBAR, 2019) Makungu, M.The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is primarily distributed in south and south-western Madagascar. It is classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The ring-tailed lemur is a species commonly kept in zoological gardens. Diseases involving various body systems such as musculoskeletal, digestive, circulatory, respiratory and urogenital systems have been reported in the ring-tailed lemur, which threatens their survival. This review describes the normal anatomy of the ring-tailed lemur as a reference for clinical use and species identification. Variations exist in the normal anatomy of different animal species. Knowledge of the normal anatomy of individual species is important for accurate diagnosis and treatment of diseases.Item Study on indigestible foreign bodies in goats slaughtered at Morogoro Municipal slaughterhouse, Tanzania(RESEARCH OPINIONS IN ANIMAL & VETERINARY SCIENCES, 2018-06-15) Makungu, M.; Nonga, H. E.This cross sectional study was conducted in October and November 2017 to investigate the occurrence of indigestible foreign bodies in goats slaughtered at Morogoro Municipal slaughterhouse, Tanzania. During ante-mortem examination of goats, the breed, sex, age, origin and the general body conditions were recorded. After slaughter and evisceration, the set of stomachs of 119 goats examined for the presence of indigestible foreign bodies. The results indicated that most of the slaughter goats were local breed (90.8%), female (66.4%), had age >2 years (63.0%), had originated from Dakawa (42.9%) and their general body condition was moderate (65.5%). Out of 119 goats, 22 (18.5%) had different kinds of indigestible foreign bodies in their rumen or rumen and reticulum. A significantly (P<0.05) high proportion of animals with poor body condition (40.0%) had indigestible foreign bodies compared to those with good body condition (9.7%). The observed indigestible foreign bodies were plastic bags (77.3%), maize corns (13.6%), clothing material (4.5%), hairballs (9.1%), stones (4.5%) and fruit seeds (9.1%). Further, a greater proportion (72.7%) of indigestible foreign bodies, were encountered in the rumen. This study found that the ingestion of indigestible foreign bodies is common in goats slaughtered at the Morogoro Municipal slaughterhouse as a result of widespread use with improper disposal of plastic bags. This may cause significant losses in the livestock production. Therefore, it is recommended that plastic bags should be properly disposed of and appropriate policies for solid waste management should be implemented.Item Thoracic Limb Morphology of the Red panda (Ailurus fulgens) evidenced by Osteology and Radiography(Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, 2015-07-15) Makungu, M.; du Plessis, W. M.; Barrows, M.; Koeppel, K. J.; Groenewald, H. B.The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is distributed primarily in the Himalayas and southern China. It is classified as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The aim of this study was to describe the normal osteology and radiographic anatomy of the thoracic limb of the red panda. Radiography of the right thoracic limb was performed in seven captive adult red pandas. Radiographic findings were correlated with bone specimens from three adult animals. The scapula was wide craniocaudally and presented with a large area for the origin of the teres major muscle. The square-shaped major tubercle did not extend proximal to the head of the humerus. The medial epicondyle was prominent. A supracondylar foramen was present. The radial tuberosity and sesamoid bone for the abductor digiti I longus were prominent. The accessory carpal bone was directed palmarolaterally. Metacarpal bones were widely spread. The thoracic limb morphology of the red panda evidenced by osteology and radiography indicated flexibility of the thoracic limb joints and well-developed flexor and supinator muscles, which are important in arboreal quadrupedal locomotion. Knowledge gained during this study may prove useful in identifying skeletal material or remains and diagnosing musculoskeletal diseases and injuries of the thoracic limb.Item Thoracic limb morphology of the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) evidenced by gross osteology and radiography(Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia, 2015-08) Makungu, M.; Groenewald, H. B.; du Plessis, W. M.; Barrows, M.; Koeppel, K. N.There is limited information available on the morphology of the thoracic limb of the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta). This study describes the morphology of the thoracic limb of captive ring-tailed lemurs evidenced by gross osteology and radiography as a guide for clinical use. Radiographic findings of 12 captive ring-tailed lemurs are correlated with bone specimens of three adult animals. The clavicle is well developed. The scapula has a large area for the origin of the m. teres major. The coracoid and hamate processes are well developed. The lateral supracondylar crest and medial epicondyle are prominent. The metacarpal bones are widely spread, and the radial tuberosity is prominent. These features indicate the presence of strong flexor muscles and flexibility of thoracic limb joints, which are important in arboreal quadrupedal locomotion. Furthermore, an ovoid ossicle is always seen at the inter-phalangeal joint of the first digit. Areas of increased soft tissue opacity are superimposed over the proximal half of the humerus and distal half of the antebrachium in male animals as a result of the scent gland. Knowledge of the morphology of the thoracic limb of individual species is important for accurate interpretation and diagnosis of musculoskeletal diseases.Item Thoracic radiographic anatomy in goats(Tanzania Veterinary Journal, 2014) Paulo, Peter; Makungu, M.; Paulo, P.The aim of this study was to describe the normal radiographic anatomy of the thorax of small East African goats as a reference for clinical use. Radiography of the thorax was performed under general anaesthesia in 10 healthy small East African goats. Right lateral (RL), left lateral (LL), dorsoventral (DV) and ventrodorsal (VD) views of the thorax were obtained at the end of inspiration. Reference ranges were established and ratios were calculated. The number of thoracic vertebrae ranged from 12 (1/10) to 13 (9/10). The mean number of sternebrae was 4.8 ± 0.42. The cardiac silhouette was rounded (7/10) and angular shaped (8/10) on the DV and VD views, respectively. The mean vertebral heart score (VHS) on the RL view (10.02 ± 0.33) was significantly (P < 0.0001) larger than that of the DV view (8.21 ± 0.49). The trachea was narrow and the mean ratio of the trachea diameter (TD) to thoracic inlet distance (TID) was 0.11 ± 0.02. On lateral views, the caudal vena cava (CVC) was frequently (9/10) clearly visible. The aorta was not clearly visible on lateral views. The mean ratio of the CVC diameter to the height of the fourth thoracic vertebral body (T4) was 1.08 ± 0.07. Species specific differences exist in the normal radiographic anatomy of the thorax. Knowledge of the normal thoracic radiographic anatomy of small East African goats should prove useful in the diagnosis of thoracic diseases.